ABSTRACT
Four studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of differently processed pigeon pea (Cajanus cajanus) seed meal (PPSM) with or without enzyme (vegpro(R)) supplementation on the growth and laying performance of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). The processing methods are soaking (for 24, 48 and 72 hours), fermentation for 72 hours, boiling for 60 minutes and roasting for 30 minutes. The proximate composition and levels of anti-nutritional factors in the raw and processed pigeon pea seeds (PPS) were evaluated. In experiments 1 and 3 (chick phases), a total of 720 (one- week old) quail chicks were used. These were allocated to eight dietary treatments, with three replicates of 30 birds each in a completely randomized design. The eight dietary treatments were made up of diet 1 containing 0 % PPSM serving as the control and seven other diets that contained 30 % of differently processed pigeon pea seed meal. All diets were isonitrogenous (25 % CP).In experiments 2 and 4 (laying phases), a total of 360 and 288 quail hens respectively were used. Six week old quails from experiment 1 and 3 were allocated to eight laying treatments of 22 % CP. Three replicates of 15 and 12 birds were allocated for experiment 2 and 4 respectively. Enzyme (Vegpro (R)) was added at the level of 100 g/ton of feed except the control in experiments 2and 4. Marked reductions were observed in anti nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitor, tannin, phytate, oxalate, saponins and cyanide with processing
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methods.In experiment 1,the final weight, weight gain, feed to gain ratio and feed cost per kg gain of birds fed the control and those fed diet 6 (PPSM soaked for 24 hours and fermented for 72 hours) were significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of other treatments. The feed intake were significantly (P<0.05) higher in all birds fed the PPSM diets compared to control.Age at first egg and first egg weight of birds were also significantly (P<0.05) affected by the dietary treatments. There was significant (P<0.05) effect of the dietary treatments on all the haematological parameters measuredexcept albumin. In the second experiment (laying phase), birds fed the control diet, diet 2 (raw PPSM), diet 3 (PPSM soaked for 24 hours) and diet 7 (boiled PPSM) had significantly (P<0.05) higher final weight and percent change in body weight compared to other treatments. The feed intake of birds fed PPSM based diets were significantly (P<0.05) higher compared to those on the control group. Feed conversion ratio and egg weights were significantly (P<0.05) affected across treatments. Hen housed egg production (%), hen day egg production (%) and peak egg production of birds were also significantly (P<0.05) improved. However, there was no significant (P>0.05) difference in age at peak lay of birds, external and internal egg quality characteristics of birds across all treatments. In the third experiment,the final weight and weight gain were significantly (P<0.05) higher in birds fed diets T1 (control), T2, T3 and T7 compared to those in other treatment groups. However, the least feed intake, feed to gain ratio and feed cost per kg gain were recorded in birds fed diets T1 (control) and diet 4. Age at first egg and first egg weight were significantly (P<0.05) higher in birds fed PPSM diets with enzymes. The haematogical parameters,carcass parameters and organ weights differed (P<0.05) significantly except the carcass weight and dressing percentages across the treatments. In the fourth experiment,final weight and percent change in body weight of birds were significantly (P<0.05) different across treatments. Feed intake of birds fed PPSM diets with enzyme were
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significantly (P<0.05) better than those in the control group. No significant (P>0.05) differenceswere observed in the hen housed egg production (%), hen day egg production (%), peak egg production (%), external and internal egg quality characteristics of birds across all treatments. Therefore, it was concluded that inclusion of PPSM soaked for 24 hours, fermented,boiled for 60 minutes and the raw PPSM enhanced growth and egg laying performance of quail birds. However, enzyme supplementation of PPSM in quail diets may not be necessary. .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i DECLARATIONii CERTIFICATIONiii DEDICATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSv ABSTRACT vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ix LIST OF TABLESxv 1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Justification 4 1.2 Objectives of the study 4 1.3 Research Hypotheses 6 2.0 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 7
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2.1 Utilization of Non-Conventional Protein Sources in Monogastric Nutrition 7 2.2 The Origin and Geographical Distribution of Pigeon Pea 8 2.3 Importance and Uses of Pigeon pea 14 2.4 Anti nutritional factors in Pigeon Pea 17 2.5 Effect of Processing on the Nutritional Value of Grain Legumes 19 2.6 Status of Quail Production in Nigeria 25 2.7 The Importance of Enzymes in Poultry Diets 28 2.7.1 Benefits of using enzymes in poultry diets 30 2.7.2 Commercial Enzyme Vegpro (R)32 3.0 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 34 3.1 Experimental Site 34 3.2 Source of Pigeon Pea Seeds 34 3.3 Processing of Pigeon Pea Seeds 34 3.4 Proximate and Chemical Composition of Pigeon Pea Seeds (PPS) 36 3.5 Determination of the Anti – Nutritional Factors of Pigeon Pea Seeds (PPS) 36 3.5.1 Determination of Tannins 36 3.5.2 Determination of Phytate 37 3.5.3 Determination of Trypsin inhibitor 37 3.5.4 Determination of Saponins 38 3.5.5 Determination of Oxalate 38 3.5.6 Determination of Cyanide 39 3.6 Experiment1: Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on Growth and Early laying Performance of Quails Chicks (2-6 weeks). 40 3.6.1 Design and Management of Experimental Birds 40
3.6.2 Experimental Diets 40
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3.6.3 Digestibility Trial 42 3.6.4 Haematological and Serum Biochemical Study 42 3.6.5 Carcass Evaluation 43 3.6.6 Statistical Analysis 43 3.7 Experiment 2: Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed PigeonPea Seeds Meal on Laying Performance of Japanese Quailand Economic Benefits(7 – 26 weeks) 44 3.7.1 Design and Management of Experimental Birds 44 3.7.2 Experimental Diets 44 3.7.3 Digestibility Trial 46 3.7.4 Egg Quality 46 3.7.5 Statistical Analysis 47 3.8 Experiment 3: Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal Supplemented with Enzyme Vegpro (R) on Growth and Early Laying Performance of Quail Chicks (2-6 weeks). 48 3.8.1 Design and Management of Experimental Birds 48 3.8.2 Experimental Diets 48 3.8.3 Digestibility Trial 50 3.8.4 Haematological and Serum Biochemical Study 50 3.8.5Carcass Evaluation 51 3.8.6 Statistical Analysis 51 3.9Experiment 4: Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal Supplemented with Enzyme Vegpro (R)on Laying Performance ofQuail Hensand Economic Benefits(7 – 26 weeks) 52 3.9.1 Design and Management of Experimental Birds 52 3.9.2 Experimental Diets 52 3.9.3 Digestibility Trial 54
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3.9.4 Egg Quality Study 54 3.95 Statistical Analysis 54 4.0 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 55 4.1 Effects of Different Processing Methods on Proximate Composition of Pigeon Pea Seed Meal (PPSM) 55 4.2 Effects of Different Processing Methods on Anti – nutritional Factors of Pigeon Seeds 57 4.3 Experiment 1: Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on the Performance of Quail Chicks (2 – 6 weeks) 59 4.3.1 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on theCarcass Characteristics of Quails 61 4.3.2 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal onHaematological Parameters and Serum Biochemistry of Japanese Quail63 4.3.3 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on Digestibility of Nutrients by Quail Chicks 65 4.4 Experiment 2: Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed PigeonPea SeedMeal on Laying Performance of Japanese Quailsand EconomicBenefits(7 – 2 6 weeks) 67 4.4.1 The Economic Benefits of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed PigeonPea Seeds to Laying Quails (7 – 26 weeks) 69 4.4.2 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on External and Internal Egg Quality Characteristics of Laying Quails (7- 26 weeks) 70 4.4.3 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on Digestibility of Nutrients by Laying Quails (7 – 26 weeks) 72 4.5 Experiment 3: Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme Supplementation on Growth and Early Laying Performance ofQuails Chicks (2 – 6 weeks) 74 4.5.1 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme (Vegpro(R)) Supplementation on the Carcass Characteristics of Quail 76
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4.5.2 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal withEnzyme (Vegpro(R)) Supplementation on Haematological Parameters andSerum Biochemistry of Japanese Quail 78 4.5.3 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme (Vegpro(R))Supplementation on Nutrients Digestibility by Quail Chicks 81 4.6 Experiment 4: Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea SeedMeal with Enzyme (Vegpro(R))Supplementation on Laying Performance of Japanese Quailsand Economic Benefits(7 – 2 6 weeks) 83 4.6.1 The Economics of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seeds with Enzyme (Vegpro(R)) Supplementation to Laying Quails 85 4.6.2 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme(Vegpro(R)) Supplementation on External and Internal Egg Quality Characteristics ofLaying Quails (7 – 26 weeks) 86 4.6.3 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme(Vegpro(R))Supplementation on Nutrients Digestibility by Laying Quails (7 – 26 weeks) 86 5.0 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 90 5.1 Proximate and Chemical Composition of Pigeon Pea Seeds (PPS) 90 5.2 Anti Nutritional Factors of the Pigeon Pea Seeds (PPS) 91 5.3 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on Performance of Quail Chicks (2 – 6 weeks) 92 5.3.1 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on the CarcassCharacteristics of Quail Birds 94 5.3.2 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seeds on HaematologicalParameters and Serum Biochemistry of Japanese Quails 95 5.3.3 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea seed Meal on Digestibilityof Nutrients by Quails 97 5.4 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon pea Seed Meal on Laying Performance of Quails and Economic Benefits (7 – 26 weeks) 98
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5.4.1 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on Digestibility of Nutrients byLaying Quails (7 – 26 weeks) 100 5.4.2 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal on External and Internal Egg Quality Characteristics of Laying Quails (7–26 weeks) 101 5.4.3 The Economics of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea SeedMeal to Laying Quails (7 – 26 weeks) 102 5.5 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with enzyme (Vegpro(R))supplementation on Performance of Quail Chicks (2 – 6 weeks) 103 5.5.1 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme (Vegpro(R)) Supplementation on Carcass Characteristics of Quails 104 5.5.2 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme (Vegpro(R)) Supplementation on the Haematological Parameters and Serum Biochemistry of Japanese Quails (2 – 6 weeks) 105 5.5.3 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with enzyme (Vegpro(R)) Supplementation on Digestibility of Nutrients by Quail Chicks (2 – 6 weeks) 107 5.6 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme(Vegpro(R)) Supplementation on Laying Performance of Quails and Economic Benefits(7 – 26 weeks) 108 5.6.1 The Economics of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea SeedMeal Supplemented with Enzyme (Vegpro(R)) to Laying Quails (7 – 26 weeks) 110 5.6.2 Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme(Vegpro(R)) Supplementation on External and Internal Egg Quality Characteristics of Laying Quails (7 – 26 weeks) 111 5.6.3 Effect of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal with Enzyme (Vegpro(R)) Supplementation on Nutrient Digestibility by
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LayingQuails (7 – 26 weeks) 111 5.7 Comparison of the Effects of Feeding Diets containing Differently Processed Pigeon Pea Seeds with and without Enzyme Supplementation on Growth and Laying Performance of Japanese Quails 112 6.0 CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 114 6.1 Summary 114 6.2 Conclusion 118 6.3 Recommendations 119 REFERENCES 120 APPENDIX 1 137
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION Themajor obstacle to the expansion of the poultry industry in Nigeria and by extension Africa is that of acute shortage and high cost of feed ingredients. (Fasuyi, 2005). This problem has been attributed to stiff competition for feedstuffs between human, industry and livestock (Tewe and Bokanga, 2001; Amaefule and Nwagbara, 2004; Iyayi and Davies, 2005). The problem of feed shortage arising from sky rocketing prices of conventional protein and energy feed ingredients (e.g groundnut cake, soybean, maize, sorghum etc) has negatively affected animal animal protein supply. This however has created a wide gap between the demand and supply of animal protein in Nigeria and many underdeveloped countries of the world. Thus, average animal protein intake of persons in most of these countries is far below the recommendations (Oyawoye, 2002).
Increasing demand and exorbitantcost of conventional protein sources like soybean, groundnut cake, fish meal e.t.c which are necessary for monogastric nutrition has madeit imperative for animal nutritionists to explore other non conventional protein sources in anattempt to improve and sustain livestock production.Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is one of the feedstuff that could serve as a useful alternative tosoybean meal and groundnut cake in the diets of poultry birds. It is one of the most widelygrown agricultural legumes in tropical and subtropical countries (Singh and Diwakar, 1993; Purdue, 2006) and has very low human food and industrial usage (Amaefule and Obioha, 2001). It is a moderately yielding legume (300-3000 kg/ha legume dry seeds) on native farms where it serves as valuable soil improver and yields 5000-7000 kg/ha under improved cultivation for over 2-3
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years period (Phillip, 1997; Ngoka, 1997). Inspite of its yield potential, its consumption is quite low possibly because of the availability of alternatives which are easier to cook (Kaura, 1985). Like most tropical legumes, the utilization of pigeon pea seeds in poultry feeding may be limited due to the presence of anti nutritional factors such as protease inhibitors (trypsin, chymotrypsin inhibitors), lecithin, tannins and non starch polysaccharides (NSP) (Grimaud, 1988; Ologhobo, 1992; D’Mello, 1992). However, remarkable improvement in the nutritive quality of legumes seeds have been achieved through various processing methods such as cooking, roasting, soaking and germination, fermentation, dehulling and chemical treatment which exerts beneficial effects by destroying the inherent anti nutritional factors (Ogundipe, 1980;Omeje, 1999; Kaankuka et al., 2000;Bawa et al., 2003; Matthew, et al., 2010).
In order to bridge the gap between the demand and supply of animal protein in Nigeria, attention of scientists and researchers has turned to the rearing of Japanese quails (Edache et al., 2005). Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) was introduced to Nigeria in 1992 to expand the poultry subsector through meat and egg production (Ani, 2009). Quails which are fast growing poultry species are very economical to maintain as they require less floor space (Haruna et al., 1997). They are small sized, early maturing, hardy and prolific (Robbins et al., 1991). They come to sexual maturity and egg production early between 5-6 weeks of age and attain market weight of 150-180 g at almost the same age. The meat and eggs are high quality protein with low body fat and cholesterol content making it a choice product for individuals proned to cardiovascular diseases (Haruna et al., 1997; Olubamiwa et al., 1999). They have less feed requirement of 20-25 g per day. In addition they are fairly disease resistant and with proper care quail hens can lay between 200 and 350 eggs in their
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first year (Oluyemi and Roberts, 2000). Quail production requires good management,
proper feeding, and availability of fresh clean water all the time and a good market outlet
(Dafwang, 2006). The most popular quail species is Coturnix coturnix which include
Coturnix coturnix coturnix (European quail),Coturnix coturnix africana (African quail)
andCoturnix coturnix japonica (Japanese quail).
In the last few decades, inclusion of exogenous enzyme in the diets for monogastric
animals had been found to exert significant beneficial effects on performance and
production indices. Some of these enzymes include cellulase ( -glucanase), xylanases and
associated enzymes, phytases, proteases, lipases and galactosidases. Proteases had been
evaluated to enhance protein digestion, lipases to enhance lipid digestion, galactosidases to
neutralize certain anti-nutritional factors in non-cereal feedstuffs, and amylase to assist in
the digestion of starch in early weaned animals (Chesson, 2001). Recently, considerable
interests had been shown in the use of phytase as a feed additive, as it does not only
increase the availability of phosphate in plants but also reduces environmental pollution.
Other commercial brands of exogenous enzymes which have been discovered to be greatly
effective in the feed industry for better growth performance and economic efficiency of
feed are Allzyme SSF, Vegpro (Allzyme® vegpro), Maxigrain, Nutrasexyla, Rovabio and
Roxazyme G2G.
Vegpro® is an enzyme complex that improves the digestibility of feed. It contains an
enzyme complement to aid pigs and poultry in digestion of vegetable protein feed
ingredients such as soybean meal, pigeon pea seeds and other legume protein feeds. It
improves digestibility of protein, amino acids, energy of vegetable protein ingredients.
Major enzyme activities in vegpro include protease, cellulase, pentosanase, (xylanase), –
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Galactosidase and amylase. The enzymes present work together in synergy to break down the different substrates resulting in a greater release of nutrients from the diets, thus improving growth and economic efficiency. 1.1 Justification The use of the conventional protein feedstuffs had been the practice over the years. However, the high cost, dwindling production and competition for these feedstuffs by industrial, livestock and human consumption have limited their availability for use in non ruminant animals feeding. Hence, the relentless search for alternative sources of proteins and energy which are available, affordable, and less competitive and can replace the conventional feed ingredients like soybean, groundnut cake, maize etc. Pigeon pea is an unconventional protein source which is readily available and may be cost effective to livestock farmers and feed millers if effective processing methods to rid it of its anti nutritional factors could be developed. Enzyme supplementation of such feed ingredient will enhance and sustain production without compromising quality of the final product and profit. This study was therefore designed to evaluate the effects of differently processed pigeon pea seeds (Cajanus cajan) on the growth and laying performance of Japanese quails and possible improvement through enzyme supplementation.
1.2 Objectives of the study The objectives of this research were to determine:
1. the proximate and anti-nutritional composition of differently processed pigeon pea seeds.
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2. the effects of dietary inclusion of differently processed pigeon pea seed meal (PPSM) on the growth and early laying performance, digestibility of feed nutrients, haematological parameters and carcass characteristics of quails.
3. the effects of dietary inclusion of differently processed PPSM on the egg production parameters of quail hens.
4. the effects of enzyme (Vegpro(R)) supplementation of diets containing differently processed PPSM on the growth and early laying performance, carcass characteristics, haematological parameters, and digestibility of feed nutrients by quails.
5. the effects of enzyme (Vegpro(R)) supplementation of diets containing differently processed PPSM on the egg production parameters of quail hens.
6. the cost benefit of using differently processed PPSM with and without enzyme supplementation in the diets of quails.
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1.3 Research Hypotheses a) Null hypotheses (i) Differently processed pigeon pea seedshave no effect on the nutritive value and anti nutritional factors of pigeon pea seeds. (ii) Differently processed pigeon pea seeds with or without enzyme supplementation have no effect on growth and early layingperformance, carcass characteristics, haematological parameters and nutrient digestibility in Japanese quails. (iii) Differently processed pigeon pea seeds with or without enzyme supplementation haveno effect on the egg production and quality parameters of quail hens. (iv) Differently processed pigeon pea seeds with or without enzyme supplementation have no cost benefit in quail production
b) Alternative hypotheses
(i) Differently processed pigeon pea seeds have effect on the nutritive value and anti nutritional factors of pigeon pea seeds. (ii) Differently processed pigeon pea seeds with or without enzyme supplementation have effect on the growth and early laying performance, nutrients digestibility,hematological parameters and carcass characteristics in Japanese quails. (iii) Differently processed pigeon pea seed with or without enzyme supplementationhave effect on the egg production and quality parameters of quail hens. (iv)Differently processed pigeon pea seeds with or without enzyme supplementation have cost benefit in quail production.
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