ABSTRACT
Studies were conducted to investigate the effect of mixed Gmelina arborea and Moringa
oleifera leaf meal inclusion on the performance of Red Sokoto goats fed Digitaria smutsii
hay based complete diets. Gmelina arborea and Moringa oleifera leaf meals were mixed at
the ratio of 3:1 and included at 0, 10, 20 and 30% in a 40 % D. smutsii hay base. In the first
growth trial, 20 intact Red Sokoto bucks between 4 and 5 months of age with a mean
weight of 12.00±0.20kg were used to ascertain the effect of mixed Gmelina arborea and
Moringa oleifera (GMMO) leaf meal inclusion on dry matter intake, live weight, costbenefit,
haematological and serum biochemical parameters of Red Sokoto does fed D.
smutsii hay based complete diets. The bucks (20) balanced by weight, were randomly
assigned to four treatments of five bucks per treatment in a Completely Randomized
Design. The experimental diets were offered at 4% body weight and the trial lasted for 90
days. A metabolism trial was conducted at the end of the feeding trial to investigate the
effect of inclusion levels of GMMO leaf meal on nitrogen intake, digestibility and nitrogen
balance. The second experiment on growth trial was carried out to investigate the effect of
GMMO leaf meal inclusion on dry matter intake, live weight, total weight gain, cost
benefit, haematological and serum biochemical parameters of Red Sokoto does fed D.
smutsii hay based complete diets. Twenty-eight (28) growing Red Sokoto does aged
between 6 and 7 months weighing 14.71±0.09 kg balanced by weight, were randomly
assigned to four treatments of seven does per treatment in a Completely Randomized
Design. The third study investigated the effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on dry matter
intake, live weight, pregnancy, birth weight, haematological and serum biochemical
parameters and milk composition of Red Sokoto does fed D. smutsii hay based complete
diets. Twenty-four pregnant Red Sokoto does aged between 13 and 14 months, weighing
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22.50 ±0.12 kg balanced by weight, were randomly assigned to four treatments of six does
(in their last trimester of pregnancy) per treatment in a Completely Randomized Design.
Animals were fed 4% of their body weight in all the studies. Results showed that daily feed
intake was significantly (P<0.05) higher in animals on GMMO leaf meal than 0% and this
ranged from 237.79g/d to 330.17g/d. Total weight gain varied from 2.86 to 4.20 kg, while
average daily weight gain ranged from 31.78 to 46.67 g/d in animals fed diets with 0% and
20% leaf meal, respectively. The optimal level of inclusion of GMMO in the diets of
growing Red Sokoto bucks was 25%. Dry matter and organic matter digestibility were
significantly (P<0.05) higher in animals fed 10% (75.86%, 84.97%) and 20% (73.16%,
84.98%) respectively, compared to other treatments. Crude protein digestibility was similar
and ranged from 72.60% in animals fed 30% to 77.62% in those fed 20%. Crude fibre
digestibility was significantly (P<0.05) different across the treatments with highest value in
animals fed 20% GMMO leaf meal (76.15%). The results of N intake was statistically
similar (P>0.05) in bucks fed 10% and 20% inclusion level. Nitrogen retention was
significantly (P>0.05) similar in animals fed 0%, 10% and 20% GMMO leaf meal. Animals
fed 0%, 10% and 20% GMMO leaf meal had significantly (P>0.05) similar total weight
gain (2.80kg, 3.30 kg and 3.38 kg), respectively. Trend analysis showed 15% inclusion as
the optimum level of GMMO leaf meal in the diets of growing Red Sokoto does. The net
profit and reduction in feed cost/kg gain at 20% GMMO leaf meal inclusion were highest in
the first and second experiment. The inclusion of GMMO leaf meal increased dry matter
intake, birth weight of kids and milk protein of the Red Sokoto does. Dry matter intake was
significantly (P>0.05) similar in does fed 10%, 20% and 30% GMMO leaf meal. Birth
weight was significantly higher (P<0.05) in does fed 20% and 30% GMMO leaf meal (1.58
kg and 1.68 kg) respectively. The values of haematological and serum biochemical
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parameters recorded were within the normal range for healthy goats. Milk protein was
significantly (P<0.05) better in does fed 10% and 20% GMMO leaf meal. Lactose content
in does fed 30% GMMO leaf meal was comparable to those fed the control diet. This study
concluded that, by mixing Gmelina arborea and Moringa oleifera leaf meal at the ratio of
3:1 in a D. smutsii hay based diet fed to Red Sokoto bucks and does, respectively produced
higher dry matter intake, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance, weight gain and birth
weight.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. ii
CERTIFICATION ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv
DEDICATION ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……………………………………………………………………………………….. vi
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………….x
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………..xvii
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………..xx
CHAPTER ONE ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 Background of the Study …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.3 Aim and Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
1.4 Hypotheses …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4
CHAPTER TWO …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………………………………………. 6
2.1 Importance of small ruminants ……………………………………………………………………………………. 6
2.2 Goat production in Nigeria ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
2.3 Breeds of goat and their distribution in Nigeria …………………………………………………………… 8
2.3.1 West African Dwarf (WAD) Goats ……………………………………………………………….. 9
2.3.2 Sahel or Desert Goats ……………………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.3.3 Red Sokoto Goats (Maradi) ……………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.4 Importance of Browse Plants …………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.4.1 Use of Browse Plants in Ruminant Nutrition ………………………………………………… 11
2.6.1 Tannins …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
2.6.2 Phytate …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 17
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2.6.3. Oxalates ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
2.6.4 Saponins ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 19
2.7 Tree Leaves as Animal Feeds ………………………………………………………………………………………. 20
2.8 Gmelina (Gmelina arborea) ………………………………………………………………………………………… 21
2.8.1 Gmelina arborea Roxb …………………………………………………………………………………. 21
2.8.2 Importance of Gmelina arborea …………………………………………………………………… 21
2.8.3 Feeding Value of Gmelina arborea ………………………………………………………………. 23
2.8.4. Effect of Feeding Gmelina arborea on Livestock Productivity ………………………… 24
2.9 Moringa ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25
2.9.1. Moringa oleifera Lam. ………………………………………………………………………………… 25
2.9.2. Importance of Moringa oleifera …………………………………………………………………… 25
2.9.3 Feeding Value of Moringa oleifera ………………………………………………………………. 26
2.9.4. Effect of Feeding Moringa oleifera on Ruminant Livestock Productivity ………….. 27
2.9.5 Effects of feeding Moringa leaf meal on Poultry Production ……………………………. 30
2.10 Feed Intake in Ruminants ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 30
2.11 Effect of browse plants on nutrient intake, digestibility and nitrogen balance ……………… 31
2.12 Hematological Parameters ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 33
2.12.1 Importance of Haematological Evaluation of Animals in Nutrition …………………… 34
2.12.2. Red blood Cell …………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
2.12.3. Packed Cell Volume …………………………………………………………………………………… 35
2.12.4. Haemoglobin ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
2.12.5. White Blood Cell ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 36
2.13 Linear body measurement …………………………………………………………………………………………… 37
2.14 Importance of Body Condition Score in Livestock Production ……………………………………. 39
2.14.1 Breeds ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41
2.14.2 Sex… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
2.14.3. Litter size ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42
CHAPTER THREE ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 43
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS………………………………………………………………….. 43
3.1 Experimental Site ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 43
3.2 Preparation of Feed …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 43
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3.3 Experiment 1: Growth Performance of Red Sokoto bucks fed inclusion levels of mixed Gmelina and 3.3.1 Experimental animals and management …………………………………………………………………….. 44
3.3.2 Experimental treatments, design and feeding of animals ……………………………………………. 44
3.4 Blood Sampling and Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………. 47
3.5 Evaluation of Blood Biochemical Constituents …………………………………………………………. 47
3.6 Feed Cost Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 48
3.7 Metabolism Trial ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 48
3.8 Experiment 2: Growth Performance of Red Sokoto does fed inclusion levels of mixed Gmelina and 3.8.1 Experimental animals and management …………………………………………………………………….. 50
3.8.2 Body linear measurement of Red Sokoto does …………………………………………………………… 50
3.9.1 Estrus Synchronization and mating of Does …………………………………………………. 51
3.10 Experiment 3: Performance of pregnant Red Sokoto does fed inclusion levels of mixed Gmelina and 3.11 Milk Sample Collection …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 52
3.12 Chemical analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 54
3.13 Statistical Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 54
CHAPTER FOUR ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
4.0 RESULTS ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
4.1. Chemical composition of Gmelina arborea, Moringa oleifera leaf meal, the mixture and major feed 4.2. Chemical composition (%) of experimental diets fed to growing Red Sokoto …….. bucks 56
4.3. Anti-nutrients contents of Gmelina leaf meal (GLM), Moringa leaf meal (MOLM) and experimental 4.4 Effect of mixed Gmelina (Gmelina arborea) and Moringa (Moringa oleifera) leaf
meal inclusion on dry matter intake and growth performance of Red Sokoto bucks
fed D. smutsii hay based diets ……………………………………………………………………………………. 59
4.6 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on haematological parameters of growing Red Sokoto bucks 4.7 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on serum biochemical constituents of growing Red Sokoto 4.8. Effect of sampling periods on haematological parameters of Red Sokoto bucks fed GMMO leaf meal
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4.9 Effect of sampling periods on serum biochemical parameters of Red Sokoto bucks fed levels of GMMO 4.10 Apparent nutrient digestibility in Red Sokoto bucks fed D. smutsii hay based diets
containing levels of GMMO leaf meal ………………………………………………………………………. 69
4.11 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on nitrogen balance in Red Sokoto bucks fed D. smutsii hay 4.12 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on intake and growth performance of Red Sokoto does fed D. 4.13 Cost-benefit analysis of including varying proportions of GMMO leaf meal in D. smutsii hay based 4.14 Linear body measurement and Body condition score of growing Red Sokoto does fed levels of GMMO 4.15 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on haematological parameters in growing Red Sokoto does 4.16 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on serum biochemistry of growing Red Sokoto does fed D. smutsii 4.17 Effect of sampling periods on haematological parameters of growing Red Sokoto does fed levels 4.18 Effect of sampling periods on serum biochemical parameters of growing Red Sokoto does fed levels 4. 19: Chemical composition (%) of experimental diets fed to pregnant Red Sokoto ……… does 84
4.21 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on haematological parameters of pregnant Red Sokoto does 4.23 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion level on intake, weight changes and birth weight of kids of Red 4.24 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on milk composition of lactating Red Sokoto does fed D. smutsii CHAPTER FIVE …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 96
5.0 DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 96
5.1 Chemical composition of major feed ingredients (DM %). ………………………………………… 96
5.2 Chemical composition (%) of experimental diets fed to growing Red Sokoto goats and pregnant Red 5.3 Anti-nutrients contents of Gmelina leaf meal (GLM), Moringa leaf meal (MOLM) and experimental 5.4 Effect of GMMO meal inclusion on feed intake and growth performance of Red Sokoto bucks fed 5. 6 Effects of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on cost-benefit analysis of Red Sokoto bucks fed D. smutsii 5.7 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on haematological parameters of growing Red Sokoto bucks 5.8 Effects of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on serum biochemistry of growing Red Sokoto bucks fed D. 5.9 Nutrient digestibility of Red Sokoto bucks fed GMMO leaf meal inclusion in D. smutsii hay based 5.10 Nitrogen balance of Red Sokoto bucks fed GMMO leaf meal inclusion in D. smutsii hay based diets
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5.11 Effects of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on feed intake and growth performance of Red Sokoto does 5.12 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on cost-benefit analysis of Red Sokoto does
fed D. smutsii hay based diets ………………………………………………………………………………….. 104
5.13 Linear body measurement and Body Condition Score of growing Red Sokoto does fed levels of GMMO 5.14 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on haematological parameters in growing Red Sokoto does 5.15 Effect of feeding of GMMO leaf meal on serum biochemistry of growing Red Sokoto does fed D. 5.16 Effect of sampling periods on haematological parameters of growing Red Sokoto does fed GMMO 5.17 Effect of sampling periods on serum biochemical parameters of growing Red Sokoto does fed D. 5.18 Effect of Gmelina and Moringa leaf meal inclusion on haematological and serum parameters of pregnant 5.19 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion level on feed intake, weight changes and birth weight of kids 5.20 Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on milk composition of Red Sokoto does fed D. smutsii hay CHAPTER SIX ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 110
6.0. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS …………………….. 110
6.1 Summary ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 110
6.2 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 112
6.3 Recommendations …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 112
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 114
APPENDIX ………………………………………………………………………………145
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Ruminant livestock have a unique digestive system that allows them to use energy from
fibrous plants materials better than other herbivores. Their digestive system is designed to
ferment feedstuffs and provide precursors for energy for the animal to use (Parish et al.,
2009).
Forages play an important role in ruminant animal nutrition. Ruminants are able to
ruminate or regurgitate ingested high forage diets to reduce particle size for improving their
digestibility (Ranjbar, 2007; Parish et al., 2009). However, inadequate supply of all year
round quality forage is a major constraint to livestock production in the tropics (Ajayi et al.,
2005; Ogunbosoye and Babayemi, 2010a). Most available ruminant feeds/feedstuffs during
the dry season are poor in nutrients which deteriorate rapidly with increasing fibre and
decreasing protein (Babayemi, 2007).
Sources of cheaper alternative forages of high quality for ruminants have been a subject of
research in recent years (Alan et al., 2013) especially for farmers in the tropics. Browse
plants have great potential as source of high quality nutrient for ruminants, being high in
protein, minerals and vitamins (Babayemi et al., 2003). They are available all year round
because of their drought resistance, persistence, vigorous growth, re-growth and palatability
(Reynolds and Atta-Krah, 2006).
The use of browse plants as supplement have been shown to enhance intake, improve
growth rate and increase reproduction in ruminants (Osakwe and Udeogu, 2007; Lamidi et
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al., 2009; Okafor et al., 2012). However, most of these forage trees have not been widely
used because they often contain anti-nutritional compounds that have deleterious effects on
animal performance (Ghosh et al., 2007).
Moringa oleifera Lamarck which originated from India is widely distributed and has
become naturalized in many locations in the tropics (Fahey, 2005). It is a non-leguminous
multipurpose tree and one of the fastest growing trees of the world. Moringa is one of the
promising plants which could contribute to increased intake of some essential nutrients and
health-promoting phytochemicals (Alikwe and Omotosho, 2013; Nweze and Nwafor
(2014). It has a high crude protein content ranging from 20-26% CP in leaves (Kakengi et
al., 2005; Ben Salem et al., 2004; Asaolu et al., 2011) with negligible contents of antinutrients
(Makkar and Becker, 1996). Moringa has been reported for its unique nutrient
profile (Ofoh et al., 2011). Moringa can grow up to 12m in height at maturity, with a yield
up to 120 t/ha/yr when it is densely planted for use as forage crop (Makkar and Becker,
1996).
Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Family verbenanceae) is a fast growing deciduous tree that can
grow up to 40 m tall and 140 cm in diameter (Jensen, 1995). Even though Gmelina arborea
can shed some of its leaves when the dry season is approaching, the regrowth of new leaves
could serve as animal feed during this period.
The leaves are high in nutrient. Previous records (Okafor et al., 2012; Osakwe and Udeogu,
2007; Ahamefule et al., 2006) have shown that the leaves contain as much as 10.01-38.4%
crude protein and 3.10-30.46 % crude fibre with low level of anti nutritional compounds.
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1.2 Justification for the study
Small ruminants are kept for meat, milk, wool and skin. In Nigeria, they are primarily
produced for meat. The meat from goat is preferable to those from other animal species
because of its flavour, tenderness and palatability (Idiong and Orok, 2008).
There is demand for chevon (goat meat) and goats have characteristics as the species of
animals that can meet this demand because they are highly prolific (Webb and Mamabolo,
2004). They are able to utilize degraded land, and thrive under conditions that other species
cannot cope with (Devendra, 1999).
There is need therefore to provide adequate nutrition to goats to allow them produce
optimally, and address the problem of weight loss and reduction in milk production during
the dry season. As a result of these nutritional issues, supplementation of goat diets is
necessary. The usual practice has been to supplement livestock diets with protein rich
ingredients such as groundnut cake (GNC), soybean meal (SBM) and cotton seed cake
(CSC). These supplements are often not fed due to their unavailability and their high costs
(Nouala et al., 2006; Olomola et al., 2008).
Cheaper and more available supplements are needed to enhance productivity in the tropics.
In earlier studies with Red Sokoto goats (Abdu et al., 2012; Okafor et al., 2012), high
nutrient digestibility, nitrogen utilization and average daily weight gain were reported for
animals on Gmelina arborea leaves. This study investigated the use of Gmelina leaf meal
in combination with Moringa leaf meal in the diet of Red Sokoto goats.
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1.3 Aim and Objectives
This study was designed to investigate the effect of mixed Gmelina arborea and Moringa
oleifera leaf meal inclusion on performance of Red Sokoto goats fed D. smutsii hay based
diets.
The specific objectives were to determine:
Effect of mixed Gmelina arborea and Moringa oleifera (GMMO) leaf meal
inclusion on dry matter intake, growth and nutrient digestibility of Red Sokoto
bucks in D. smutsii hay based diets.
Effect of GMMO leaf meal on dry matter intake, growth, pregnancy, birth weight of
Red Sokoto kids and milk composition in lactating Red Sokoto does.
Effect of GMMO leaf meal inclusion on haematological and serum biochemical
parameters in Red Sokoto goats fed D. smutsii hay based diets.
The cost benefit of feeding GMMO leaf meal inclusion to Red Sokoto goats.
1.4 Hypotheses
1. Ho: Mixed Gmelina arborea and Moringa oleifera (GMMO) leaf meal inclusion has
no significant effect on dry matter intake, growth and nutrient digestibility in Red
sokoto bucks fed D. smutsii hay based diets.
2. Ho: Mixed Gmelina arborea and Moringa oleifera leaf meal inclusion has no
significant effects on dry matter intake, growth, pregnancy, birth weight of Red
Sokoto kids and milk composition in lactating Red Sokoto does.
3. Ho: GMMO leaf meals inclusion has no significant effect on cost benefit of Red
Sokoto goats fed D. smutsii hay based diets.
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4. Ha: Mixed Gmelina arborea and Moringa oleifera (GMMO) leaf meal inclusion has
significant effect on dry matter intake, growth and digestibility in Red Sokoto bucks
fed D. smutsii hay based diets.
5. Ha: Mixed Gmelina arborea and Moringa oleifera leaf meal inclusion has
significant effects on dry matter intake, growth, pregnancy, birth weight of Red
Sokoto kids and milk composition in lactating Red Sokoto does.
6. Ha: GMMO leaf meals inclusion has significant effect on cost benefit in Red Sokoto
goats fed D. smutsii hay based diets.
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