ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted in two stages. The first stage was to investigate the effect of soaking duration on the proximate composition and anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merril), while the second stage was to evaluate the performance of Friesian x Bunaji calves fed different ratios of soy:cow milk. In stage one of the experiment, soybean was sourced, cleaned and divided into five groups (intended for the experimental treatments). The first group was the control (unsoaked soybean), while the other groups were soaked in clean water for 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours, respectively. The water was changed twice after every 24 hours of soaking. Thereafter, the soybean was rinsed, sun-dried for 8 days, milled, sieved and then taken to the laboratory for analyses. Results of the proximate composition showed that unsoaked soybean
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(control) had 40.28% crude protein, 14.11% fat and metabolizable energy of 3459.50 kcal/kg DM. While soybean soaked for 72 hours had 44.37% CP, 29.55% fat and ME value 5514.57 kcal/kg DM. Soaking improved the chemical composition as well as reduced the levels of anti-nutritional factors in the soybean especially at 72 hours duration. The crude protein content of the different ratios of soy:cow milk diets increased with increase levels of soymilk and varies from 3.29% in 0:100 to 5.23% in the diet containing 75:25 ratio of soy:cow milk. The total solid, fat, solid-not-fat and ash contents also followed similar pattern. In the second experiment, a growth trial was carried out to evaluate the feeding value of the best soaking duration (72hrs) in combination with cow milk at a ratio of 0:100 (control), 25:75, 50:50 and 75:25 soy:cow milk, respectively in the diets of Friesian x Bunaji calves. Sixteen calves with average body weight of 34.8±0.7kg were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments with 4 calves per treatment in a Completely Randomized Design. Results from the growth trial showed that there was no significant difference (P>0.05) in average total feed intake among calves fed the different ratios of soy:cow milk. Calves fed diet containing 25:75 ratio of soy:cow milk had the lowest total feed intake (409.64 kg), average daily feed intake (4.18 kg/day) and better total weight gain (74.25 kg), average daily weight gain (0.76 kg/day) and feed conversion ratio (5.52) as against (416.29 kg), (4.25 kg/day), (66.00 kg), (0.67 kg/day) and (6.31), respectively in calves fed cow milk alone (control).
Inclusion of soymilk at different ratios had positive influence on some linear body measurements (body length, height at withers and heart girth) of calves. The blood parameters measured were within the normal range for healthy calves, indicating that soaking of soybean in water for 72 hours had significantly reduced the levels of ANFs in the soymilk fed to calves. White blood cells and glucose were within the normal range (4 – 12×109/l) and (40 – 100mg/dl), respectively. Feeding different ratios of soy:cow milk had positive influence on rumen metabolites (rumen fluid temperature, pH, NH3-N and TVFA) with 75:25 ratio of soy:cow milk raton having the highest concentration of RAN (13.84 mg/100ml). Sampling time significantly (P<0.05) influenced rumen temperature, pH, NH3-N and TVFA concentrations. Digestibility of DM, OM, CP, NDF and ADF
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were significantly (P<0.05) influenced by the inclusion of soymilk at different ratios. However, calves fed 25:75 and 75:25 ratios of soy:cow milk had better nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance, respectively. The cost of cow milk per litre (N98.00) was about 3 times higher than soymilk (N33). Calves fed 25 and 50% soymilk had better feed cost per kg weight gain N496.10 and N469.67, respectively. Calves fed 75:25 ratio of soy:cow milk had the least total cost of feed consumed (N 30489.00). Indicating that feeding cow milk alone to calves was very expensive compared with feeding soy:cow milk at 75:25 ratio. It was concluded that soaking of soybean in water for 72 hours reduced the levels of ANFs and improved the nutritive value. Feeding 25:75 soy:cow milk improved live weight gain by 0.76 kg/day as against 0.67kg/day in calves fed cow milk alone. From an economic standpoint, feeding soy:cow milk at a ratio of 75:25 reduced the cost of feeding by (24.16%) as compared with feeding cow milk alone. Therefore, soaking of soybean in water for 72 hours was recommended for good result. And feeding calves with 25:75 ratio of soy:cow milk is recommended for better performance and feed conversion than feeding cow milk alone.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Title Page…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………i
Declaration …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii
Certification ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii
Dedication… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. v
Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… vi
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xii
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… xiii
List of Appendices ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xiv
Abbreviations Used ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xv
Abstract….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… xviii
CHAPTER ONE …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.1 Justification of the Study…………………………………………………………………………………… 3
1.2 Objectives of the Study ……………………………………………………………………………………… 3
1.3 Research Hypotheses ………………………………………………………………………………………… 4
CHAPTER TWO ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………………………………………………………………. 5
2.1 Livestock Production in Nigeria ………………………………………………………………………… 5
2.2 Dairy Development in Nigeria …………………………………………………………………………… 5
2.3 Dairy Production in Nigeria ……………………………………………………………………………… 6
2.4 Historical Background of Soybean…………………………………………………………………….. 8
2.4.1 Description of Soybean and its Origin in Nigeria ……………………………………………………. 8
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2.4.2 Soybean Production in Nigeria ………………………………… …………………………………………..8
2.4.3 Importance of Soybean……. …………………………………………………………………………………. 9
2.4.4 Utilization of Soybean by Animals ………………………………………………………………………. 10
2.4.5 Anti-nutritional Factors in Soybean ……………………………………………………………………. 10
2.4.5.1 Protease Inhibitors……………………………………………………………………………………………..11
2.4.5.2 Tannins…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….11
2.4.5.3 Phytates……………………………………………………………………………………………………………12
2.4.5.4 Oxalates……………………………………………………………………………………………………………12
2.4.5.5 Saponins…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..12
2.4.6 Methods of Alleviating the ANFs in Soybean……………………………………………………….13
2.4.6.1 Soaking as a Processing Method………………………………………………………………………….13
2.4.6.2 Alleviation of ANFs by Rumen Microbial Activity…………………………………………………14
2.4.7 How to Mix and Administer Calf Milk Replacer…………………………………………………….15
2.4.8 How to Mix and Administer Milk Replacer Containing Soy Protein………………………..15
2.5 Feeds for Calves…………………………………………………………………………………………………16
2.5.1 Colostrum…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..17
2.5.2 Whole Milk………………………………………………………………………………………………………….17
2.5.3 Effect of Feeding Whole Milk on Calf Performance………………………………………………….18
2.5.4 Milk Replacers……………………………………………………………………………………………………..18
2.5.5 Alternative Proteins in Milk Replacers for Dairy Calves……………………………………………20
2.5.5.1 Soy Products……………………………………………………………………………………………………….22
2.5.6 Other Ingredients Used as Milk Relacer……………………………………………………………..22
2.5.6.1 Fish Protein………………………………………………………………………………………………….23
2.5.6.2 Pea Protein…………………………………………………………………………………………………..23
2.5.6.3 Whey Powder……………………………………………………………………………………………….24
2.5.6.4 Rapeseed Flour and Oil………………………………………………………………………………………..24
2.5.6.5 Potatoes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..24
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2.5.6.6 Blood Protein………………………………………………………………………………………………24
2.5.6.7 Liquid Egg………………………………………………………………………………………………….25
2.5.6.8 Barley, Oats or Molassed Beet Pulp………………………………………………………………….25
2.5.7 Factors that Influence Calf Performance on Alternative Protein…………………………………..25
2.5.8 Digestive Disturbances in Calves fed Alternative Proteins………………………………………….26
2.6 Effect of Milk Replacer on Calf Performance……………………………………………………………26
2.6.1 Effect of Soybean Based MR on Growth Performance of Calves…………………………………26
2.6.2 Effect of Soybean Based MR on Nutrient Digestibility and Nitrogen Retention…………….28
2.6.3 Economic Benefits of Feeding Soybean Based Milk Replacers……………………………………29
2.6.4 Causes of Growth Depression in Calves fed Soybean Based Milk Replacers………………..30
2.7 Solid Feeds…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..32
2.7.1 Calf Starter…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..32
2.7.1.1 Variables that Contribute to Differences in Calf Starter Intake………………………………….32
2.7.2 Forages………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..33
2.7.3 Effect of Milk Replacer on Starter Intake…………………………………………………………………33
2.7.4 Effect of Liquid Feeding on Rumen Development…………………………………………………….33
2.8 Calf Rearing Systems…………………………………………………………………………………………….35
2.8.1 Conventional Rearing…………………………………………………………………………………………….35
2.8.2 Intensive Rearing…………………………………………………………………………………………………..35
CHAPTER THREE………………………………………………………………………………………………………..37
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS…………………………………………………………………………37
3.1 Location of the Study…………………………………………………………………………………………37
3.2 Source of Feed Materials……………………………………………………………………………………37
3.3 Effect of Soaking Duration on Nutritional and Anti-Nutritional Composition of Soybean……37
3.3.1 Preparation of Soyflour…………………………………………………………………………………………37
3.4 Stage Two of the Experiment: Growth Performance of Friesian x Bunaji Calves….39
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3.4.1 Experimental Animals, Design and Management…………………………………………………….39
3.4.2 Experimental Diets………………………………………………………………………………………………39
3.4.3 Milk Sample Collection……………………………………………………………………………………….40
3.4.4 Feed Intake and Live Weight Changes…………………………………………………………………..41
3.4.5 Linear Body Measurements………………………………………………………………………………….41
3.4.5.1 Body Length………………………………………………………………………………………………………41
3.4.5.2 Height at Withers……………………………………………………………………………………………….41
3.4.5.3 Heart Girth………………………………………………………………………………………………………..42
3.4.6 Blood Collection…………………………………………………………………………………………………42
3.4.7 Rumen Fluid Sampling………………………………………………………………………………………..42
3.4.8 Metabolism Trial………………………………………………………………………………………………..43
3.5 Economic Analyses …………………………………………………………………………………………. 43
3.6 Laboratory Analyses ………………………………………………………………………………………. 44
3.7 Statistical Analyses …………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
3.7.1 Model for the Feeding Trial…………………………………………………………………………………..46
3.7.2 Model for Rumen Fluid Sampling Time………………………………………………………………….46
CHAPTER FOUR ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 47
4.0 RESULTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 47
4.1 Stage One of the Experiment: Effect of Soaking Duration on Nutritional and Anti-Nutritional Compositon of Soybean…………………………………………………47
4.1.1 Chemical Composition of Soybean at Different Soaking Duration (DM basis). ……….. 47
4.1.2 Chemical Composition of Friesian x Bunaji Milk and SoyMilk (Wet basis). …………….. 47
4.1.3 Anti-Nutritional Factors in Soybean at Different Duration of Soaking …………………….. 50
4.2 Chemical Composition of Concentrate Diet and Digitaria smutsii Hay. ……………… 50
DECLARATION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ii
CERTIFICATION …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. iii
DEDICATION ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………………………………………… v
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………… vi
2.5.2 Whole Milk………………………………………………………………………………………………………….17 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… vii
3.4.5.1 Body Length………………………………………………………………………………………………………41 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ix
3.4.5.2 Height at Withers……………………………………………………………………………………………….41 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ix
3.4.5.3 Heart Girth………………………………………………………………………………………………………..42 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ix
LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. xiv
ABBREVIATIONS USED …………………………………………………………………………………………….. xv
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. xviii
CHAPTER ONE …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 Justification of the Study …………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.2 Objectives of the Study ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.3 Research Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
CHAPTER TWO ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………………………………………………………………. 5
2.1 Livestock Production in Nigeria …………………………………………………………………………… 5
2.2 Dairy Development in Nigeria ……………………………………………………………………………… 5
2.3 Dairy Production in Nigeria …………………………………………………………………………………. 6
2.4.3 Importance of Soybean ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
2.4.4 Utilization of Soybean by Animals ……………………………………………………………………… 10
2.4.5 Anti-nutritional Factors in Soybean …………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.4.5.2 Tannins …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11
2.4.5.3 Phytates ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
2.4.5.4 Oxalates………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
2.4.5.5 Saponins …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12
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2.4.6 Methods of Alleviating the ANFs in Soybean ………………………………………………………. 13
2.4.6.1 Soaking as a Processing Method ……………………………………………………………………… 13
2.4.6.2 Alleviation of ANFs by Rumen Microbial Activity ……………………………………………. 14
2.5 Feeds for Calves ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 16
2.5.1 Colostrum ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 17
2.5.2 Whole Milk ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
2.5.3 Effect of Feeding Whole Milk on Calf Performance ……………………………………………… 18
2.5.4 Milk Replacers …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
2.5.5 Alternative Proteins in Milk Replacers for Dairy Calves ……………………………………….. 20
2.5.7 Factors that Influence Calf Performance on Alternative Protein ……………………………… 25
2.5.8 Digestive Disturbances in Calves fed Alternative Proteins …………………………………….. 26
2.6 Effect of Milk Replacer on Calf Performance ………………………………………………………. 26
2.6.1 Effect of Soybean Based MR on Growth Performance of Calves ……………………………. 26
2.6.3 Economic Benefits of Feeding Soybean Based Milk Replacers ……………………………… 29
CHAPTER THREE ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 37
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ……………………………………………………………………….. 37
3.1 Location of the Study ………………………………………………………………………………………… 37
3.2 Source of Feed Materials …………………………………………………………………………………… 37
3.3.1 Preparation of Soyflour ……………………………………………………………………………………… 37
3.4 Stage Two of the Experiment: Growth Performance of Friesian x Bunaji Calves. ………… 39
3.4.1 Experimental Animals, Design and Management …………………………………………………. 39
3.4.2 Experimental Diets………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39
3.4.3 Milk Sample Collection …………………………………………………………………………………….. 40
3.4.5 Linear Body Measurements ……………………………………………………………………………….. 41
3.4.5.1 Body Length (BL): …………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
3.4.5.2 Height at Withers (HW) ………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
3.4.5.3 Heart Girth (HG) ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 42
3.4.6 Blood Collection ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 42
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3.4.7 Rumen Fluid Sampling ……………………………………………………………………………………… 42
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 99
APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 116
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Calves are the future producers of cow milk for human consumption, but depend solely on milk for their nutritional needs at the early stage of life. Milk is a unique food for calves and supplies a lot of nutrients essential for growth and organ development (Ghorbani et al., 2007). Post-natal feeding of dairy calves is very important for better health and growth especially in commercial as well as smallholder dairy farms (Khan et al., 2012). However, the indigenous breeds of cattle in Nigeria are naturally poor milk producers, as they do not produce enough milk for optimum sustainability of their calves talk less of having surplus for human consumption. This results in underfeeding or starvation of calves with a consequence of stunted growth and mortality. Shortage of nutrients especially during the early stages of life in calves reflects later in their whole life in terms of productive and reproductive performances (Roy et al., 2016). If suitable substitutes for milk are made available, the nutrition of infant pre-ruminants can be improved and survivability can be increased (Khan et al., 2012). The benefits of improved nutritional status of calves in the first 2 – 3 months of life may include reaching maturity age sooner, improved ability to withstand infectious challenges and increased subsequent milk production (Drackley, 1999). Milk replacers (MR) are very good sources of liquid feed for calves (Roy et al., 2016). Khan et al. (2012) defined milk replacers as those feed ingredients or a mixture of such ingredients that can be used as substitute for whole milk in the diets of calves. They are made from by-products of milk with the addition of some other ingredients in such a way that the final product is comparable to whole milk. A typical MR comprises of skim milk powder, whey powder and vegetable oils. Crude protein content is usually 20%, and the fat content typically ranges from 15 to 22% (DM basis) (Mete et al., 2000).
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In developed countries, alternatives to whole milk feeding to pre-ruminants are formulated using by-products of milk processing industry (Oliveira et al., 2015). Such practice is not feasible in a developing country like Nigeria where the demand for milk and milk products in human nutrition is constantly increasing as a result of the rapid increase in human population (ATA, 2013). The aim of using milk replacer is to cut down the cost of whole milk in calf rearing programme and to improve their performance (Mete et al., 2000). There are many types of low cost, high quality plant protein viz, soyflour, soymilk, soy protein concentrate and wheat protein which could be used in the formulation of milk replacers (Ghorbani et al., 2007). However, Roy et al. (2016) showed that soy protein is widely used in milk replacer formulations because of its high-quality protein content. Soybean contains up to 40% crude protein compared with 1.0 to 5.6% protein content of most animal milk (Ghorbani et al., 2007) and has an acceptable amino acid profile (Gernah et al., 2013). Soymilk not only provides protein but is also a good source of carbohydrate, fat, vitamins and minerals (Nitsan et al., 2005).
Soymilk, a novel milk replacer has been used for artificial rearing of young animals (Ghorbani et al., 2007). Few studies indicated that feeding soymilk as milk replacer to calves resulted to increased growth performance when compared to whole milk feeding (Bartlett et al., 2006; Ghorbani et al., 2007; Masum et al., 2009; Roy et al., 2016). Despite soybean‟s pivotal role in animal nutrition, it cannot be fed unprocessed because there are some anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) which limits its utilization. These ANFs include: protease inhibitors, tannins, phytates, oxalates, saponins, etc. Fortunately, the levels of these ANFs can be eliminated or reduced through soaking, cooking, sprouting, fermentation, toasting, etc (Soetan and Oyewole, 2009). In additon, soaking could reduce ANFs such as protease enzyme inhibitor, phytates, etc due to their partial or total solubilization and removal with the discarded solution (Prodanov et al., 2004). However, in calves with completely functioning rumens, ANFs and complex proteins are not as detrimental, and thus processing is not as crucial (Liener, 1994).
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1.1 Justification of the Study
Milk replacer is an ideal liquid feed for pre-ruminants. Commercial milk replacers are scarce and expensive because they are mostly imported. Soybean is readily available, less expensive and can be cultivated locally. Soybean has potential for use as milk replacer formulations because of its high nutritive value. Soybean is a good source of high quality, relatively inexpensive protein. Soybean protein is often used in calf milk replacers and starters instead of milk proteins because of its low cost and its essential amino acid content which is similar to cow‟s milk. Soymilk is cheaper than cow milk therefore, successful replacement of cow milk with soymilk may reduce feed cost. However, to ensure proper growth and health of the calf, processing and subsequent solubility of the protein source are crucially important for determining the suitability of alternative proteins in milk replacers. Soaking as a processing method could be employed to improve the feeding value of soymilk. Successful replacement of cow milk with processed soymilk could also improve the nutrition and survivability of calves. The technology can easily be adopted by farmers to enhance the survival of the calves and have excess milk for sale. The use of soymilk as an alternative protein source in milk replacers is therefore a very vital area to explore in calf nutritional research.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
The broad objective of the study was to investigate the potentials of using soymilk as a replacement for cow milk in the diets of dairy calves. While the specific objectives were to evaluate:
1. The effect of soaking duration on the nutritional and antinutritional composition of soybean (milk quality of soybean).
2. The performance of Friesian x Bunaji calves fed different ratios of soymilk and cow milk.
3. The economic advantage of feeding different ratios of soy:cow milk in Friesian x Bunaji calves.
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1.3 Research Questions
This study was carried out on the following research questions: Research Question 1: Does soaking durations have any effect on nutritional and anti- nutritional contents of soybean? Research Question 2: Does feeding different ratios of soy:cow milk have any effect on performance of Friesian x Bunaji calves? Research Question 3: Does feeding different ratios of soy:cow milk have any economic advantage?
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