ABSTRACT
Laboratory studies were conducted in the Entomology Laboratory of Crop Protection Department, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Samaru-Zaria, to evaluate the efficacies of four silica-based dust namely; Diatomaceous earth (DE), Periwinkle shell dust (PSD), Rice husk ash (RHAC), and Prawn shellash (PSA) with Pirimiphos methyl (Actellic EC) as the standard check and untreated control (which had no treatment at all) for the management of Triboliumcastaneum(Herbst) on stored wheat. The treatments were laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) at five concentrations (0.25, 0.50, 1.00, 1.50 and 2.00g/100g of wheat grains) each repeated three times. The parameters assessed for the efficacy of the silica based dust include; adult mortality at 24, 48 and 72 hours post treatment; progeny emergence (F1 and F2), and percentage grain damage. Results obtained sowed that DE applied at 1.00and 2.00 g/100 g had hundred percent mortality. PSA had 93 % adult insect mortality, which was not significant difference from the standard check (Actellic EC).RHC and PS together with the untreated check had the least number of adult insect mortalityand were not significantly different. F1 and F2 progeny emergence was inhibited in all the treatments except the untreated check. At 40 days post-treatment (F1) progeny emergence was completely (100%) suppressed by the standard check followed by PSD (0.33), DE (1.00), RHAC (1.47) and PS had the least control of progeny (6.13). At 80 days, F2 progeny emergence showed that RHC had least mean number of emergence (0.067), followed by DE (0.20), PSD (1.33) and PS (5.33). There was no significant difference between PSD, DE and RHAC with the standard check in terms of preventing grain damage. PSD, DE and RHAC treated wheat grains had the least grain damage which were similar to the standard check. Wheat grains treated with PS suffered the highest grain damage which was similar to the untreated check. DE was the best among the silica-based dust followed by PSD, then RHAC in the control of T.castaneum, while PS had the least control. Therefore, DE, PSD and RHAC can be recommended for use as grain protectant.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover Page …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. i
Title Page ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ii
Declaration …………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii
Certification …………………………………………………………………………………………………..iv
Dedication ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… v
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………………………vi
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. vii
Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………………………………… viii
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………………………………xi
List of Plates ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. xii
1.0 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.1 Background Information …………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.2 Justification of the Study ……………………………………………………………………. 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study …………………………………………………………. 5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………………………………………………… 6
2.1 Importance of Wheat Grain ………………………………………………………………… 6
2.2 Economic Importance of Stored Product Insect Pests ………………………………. 9
2.3 Damage by Red Flour Beetle (Tribolium castaneum) …………………………….. 10
2.3.1 Life cycle of Red Flour Beetle (Tribolium castaneum)…………………………… 10
2.3.2 Origin and Description of Tribolium castaneum …………………………………… 12
2.3.3 Economic importance of Tribolium castaneum …………………………………….. 13
2.4 Difference between Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum …………. 13
2.5 Control of Stored Product Insects Pests ………………………………………………. 16
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2.5.1 Chemical control of stored product insects pests …………………………………… 17
2.5.2 Physical control of stored product insects pests…………………………………….. 17
2.5.3 Biological control of stored product insects pests ………………………………….. 17
2.5.4 Host plant resistance to insect ……………………………………………………………. 18
2.6 Inert Dust Materials …………………………………………………………………………. 18
2.6.1 Potentials of diatomaceous earth in the control of insect pest ………………….. 20
2.6.2 Ash of Rice husk …………………………………………………………………………….. 24
2.6.2.1 Potentials of rice husk ash (RHA) in the control of insect pest ………………… 25
2.6.2.2 Composition of rice husk ………………………………………………………………….. 27
2.6.3 Periwinkle shell dust (PSD) ………………………………………………………………. 28
2.6.3.1 Potentials of periwinkle shell dust (PSD) in the control of insect pest ………. 29
2.6.4 Prawn shell ash (PSA) ……………………………………………………………………… 30
2.6.4.1 Potentials of prawn shell ash (PSA) in the control of insect pest ……………… 31
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ……………………………………………………….. 33
3.1 Culture and Colony Establishment of the Red Flour Beetle, Tribolium castaneum ……………………………………………………………………………………… 33
3.2 Procurement and Treatment of Wheat Grains ………………………………………. 33
3.3 Sources of Silica-Based Dusts Materials ……………………………………………… 34
3.4 Treatments and Experimental Design …………………………………………………. 34
3.5 Data Collection……………………………………………………………………………….. 35
3.5.1 Mortality count ……………………………………………………………………………….. 35
3.5.2 Progeny emergence …………………………………………………………………………. 36
3.5.3 Percentage grain damage ………………………………………………………………….. 36
3.6 Statistical Analysis ………………………………………………………………………….. 36
4.0 RESULTS ……………………………………………………………………………………… 37
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4.1 The Efficacies of Silica-Based Dusts on the Mortality of Adult Tribolium castaneum at 24, 48 and 72 Hours after Infestation ……………………………….. 37
4.2 Effect of Silica-Based Dust on the F1 and F2 Progeny Emergence of Tribolium Castaneum at 40 and 80 Days after Infestation …………………………………….. 38
4.3 The Effect of Silica-Based Dusts on Percentage Grains Damaged by Tribolium castaneum at 80 Days after Infestation …………………………………. 40
4.4 The Interaction Effect of Silica-Based Dusts and Rates on Mortality at 72 hours after Infestation ………………………………………………………………………. 42
4.5 The Interaction Effect of Silica-Based Dusts and Rates on Grain Damage … 42
5.0 DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………………………… 44
5.1 Effect of Silica- Based Dusts on Adult Mortality of Tribolium castaneum at 24, 48, 72 hours after Infestation ……………………………………………………….. 44
5.2 Effect of Silica-Based Dust on Progeny Emergence of Tribolium castaneum …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 45
5.3 Efficacy of Silica-Based Dusts on the Percentage Damaged Wheat Grains by Tribolium castaneum ……………………………………………………………………….. 46
6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION …………………. 47
6.1 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 47
6.2 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………….. 47
6.3 Recommendation …………………………………………………………………………….. 48
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………………… 49
Appendix …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 58
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
Wheat (Triticumspp.) is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East and Ethiopian Highlands, but now cultivated worldwide. Wheat belongs to the grass family Poaceae(Belderok et al., 2000). In 2014, world production of wheat was 713 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize (1,016 million tons) and rice (745 million tons)while for that of Nigeria, wheat production quantity was 90, 000 tonnes(FAOSTAT, 2015). Wheat has been cultivated in Nigeria for several centuries especially, in the Northern States in the hydromorphic lowlands or valleys and watercourse in the relatively colder areas. However, large scale production to meet local demands for bread, cakes and other confectionaries commenced after the development of irrigation schemes in 1959 at Wurno, Hadejia, and GamboruNgala(Mustapha, 1998). Wheat production in Nigeria is mainly in the Sudan and Sahel ecological zones, which include the Chad Basin, HadejiaJama‟are River Basin and Sokoto Rima Basin. The crop is cultivated under irrigation during the cold “Harmattan” period between the months of November and February which provides the required low night temperatures ranging from 10 to 250C (Abbas, 1988).
Wheat demand is very high in Nigeria as a result of increasing population and urbanization and large proportion of the demand is met through importation (Aminu-Kano and Ikwelle, 1998). Efforts to satisfy local consumption through domestic production have failed because of many technical and political problems (Mustapha, 1998).In order to boost food production in the country, the government in 1976 promulgated a decree establishing 11 River Basin Development Authorities (Olugbemi,
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1990). Three of these are; the Hadejia-Jama‟are Basin (Kano/ Jigawa States), the Sokoto-Rima Basin (Sokoto, Zamfara and Kebbi States), and the Chad Basin (Borno/Yobe States), which are located within latitudes 10-14°N to promote wheat production. When fully developed, the three river basins were to provide about 345,000 ha of irrigated land with about 50-60% of it allocated to wheat.
Wheat is planted to a limited extent as a forage crop for livestock, and its straw can be used as a construction material for roofing thatch (Smith, 1995). The whole grain can be milled to leave just the endosperm for white flour. The by-products of this are bran and germ. The whole grain is a concentrated source of vitamins, minerals, and protein, while the refined grain is mostly starch.Wheat is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the FlameAnisancanthusguadrifidus, Rustic Shoulder-knotApameasordens, Setaceous Hebrew CharacterXestia c-nigrum and Turnip MothAgrotissegetum. Early in the season, many species of birds, including the Long-tailed WidowbirdEuplectesprogne, and rodents feed upon wheat crops. These animals can cause significant damage to a crop by digging up and eating newly planted seeds or young plants. They can also damage the crop late in the season by eating the grain from the mature spike. Recent post-harvest losses in cereals amount to billions of dollars per year in the USA alone, and damage to wheat by various borers, beetles and weevils is no exception. Rodents can also cause major losses during storage, and in major grain growing regions, field mice numbers can sometimes build up explosively to plague proportions because of the ready availability of food(Anonymous, 1990).
1.2 Justification ofthe Study
Dry wheat grain is damaged by many insect pests, some of which are field to store pests. Pests such as insects, rodents and mites are the cause of most damages to grains.
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The important storage pests of wheat areSitophilusspp., Oryzaephilussurinamensis, Triboliumcastaneum (Herbst.), Rhyzoperthadominica (F.)Triboliumconfusum (Duval.)(Stathers et al., 2004). AlthoughTriboliumcastaneumhasbeenconsidered to be a secondary pest, its control should not be ignored. This isbecause it has been found to attack groundnut kernels and pods(Paulraj and Shayaraj, 2002). T. castaneum could cause damage to whole maize meant for planting thus assuming a primary pest status(IITA, 2011).T. castaneumhas long been associated witha wide range of commodities including grains (wheat, peas, beans, flour, nuts, dried fruits and spices). This insect causes a substantial loss to these produce in storage because of its high reproductive potential (Bekele et al., 1997). It is therefore of paramount importanceto control the attack by the insectpests if food security and sufficiency is to be achieved. Thecontrol of these pests has been mainly through the use ofconventional chemicals. The use of conventional dusts (e.g.pirimiphos – methyl, permethrin) and fumigants (e.g.aluminium phosphide) and their effectiveness against Callosobrunchusmaculatus in storage has been reported by Jackai and Daoust(1986). The control of storage insects like Sitophiluszeamaishas centredmainly on the use of synthetic insecticides(Asawalam et al., 2007). The most popular practice in protecting stored seedsagainst insect pest damage is the use of synthetic cropprotection agents(Subramanyam and Hagstrum, 1995; Ofuya, 2003; Adebayo and Ibikunle, 2014).
The major setbacks to the use of synthetic pesticides include itsrisk to the user, high cost of procurement, development ofresistant species and residue in the food crops. The aforementioned have led scientists to investigate plantproducts as alternative to synthetic pesticides(Lale, 2002). Whenthe insecticides are used improperly they pose
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risk to man and theenvironment, a risk that is most common among uneducated rural farmers in Africa(Ofuya, 2003). Insecticides derived fromplants and other biological materials could be betterreplacement for synthetic insecticides in stored productsprotection(Lale, 2001). Plant products such as vegetable oils, essential oils, crude extracts and powders have been testedagainst C. maculatus. (Golob et al., 1991; Lale, 1995; Dales, 1996; Boeke et al., 2001). Powder of many indigenous plants when applied at 2% of the weight of stored beans effectively controlled cowpea seed beetle during storage(Lale, 1994; Ogunwolu and Odunlami, 1996; Adedire and Lajide, 2001; Adebayo and Ibikunle, 2014). Therefore this study tried to investigate the potentials ofdiatomaceous earth (DE), Periwinkle shell dust (PSD), Rice husk concentrate (RHC), and Prawn shellash (PSA) as grainprotectants against T.castaneum.
Diatomaceous Earth (DE) is a natural product of soft rock that is fossilized remains of unicellular algae called diatoms (Koranic, 1998). Rice husk is one of the most widely available agricultural wastes in many rice producing countries of the world. Rice hulls (or rice husks) are the hard protecting coverings of grains of rice and are removed from rice grain as a by-product during the milling process. The common periwinkle or winkle (Littorinalittorea) is a species of small edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc that has gills and an operculum, and is classified within the family littorinidae, the periwinkle. Prawn is a common name, which originated from the United Kingdom, Ireland and Commonwealth nations, for large swimming crustaceans or shrimp, especially those with commercial significance in the sea food industry(Reid and Gofas, 2011).
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1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of the research is to assess the efficacyof Silica-based dust against T.castaneun infesting stored wheat grain. This aim was achieved with the following objectives:
1. To evaluate the effect of Silica-based dusts on adult mortality andprogeny development of T.castaneum.
2. To evaluate the effect of Silica-based dusts ongrain damage by T.castaneum.
3. Effect of Silica-based dusts rate on adult mortality and progeny development.
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