ABSTRACT
Stature prediction occupies relatively a central position in anthropometric research. Estimation of stature of an individual from the mutilated or amputated limbs has obvioussignificance in the personal identification, in the events of murders, accidents or natural disasters. This study aimed at determining the anthropometric parameters and estimationof stature for both males and females using anthropometric parametersin four different ethnic groups (Lokaa, Ayiga, Agoi and Ekoi) of Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State. Investigate sexual dimorphism in anthropometric parameters inthe ethnic groups studied, determine the relationship between stature and demi span, biaxillary, neck, hand, finger, thigh, leg and foot lengths, neck, chest, waist, hip, thigh and calf circumferences and sitting height in the ethnic groups studied and to generate formulae of stature estimation for both males and females using anthropometric measurements of some length parameters for the study population, in order to establish a reference data base for the relationship between anthropometric length variables considered in this study and stature in the four ethnic groups, as height equations are population specific. This study was carried out to determine the reliability of anthropometric parameters in estimating stature in Yakurr L.G.A. of Cross River State population. A cross sectional study was conducted and the subjects comprised 800 adult indigenes (400 males and 400 females) of Cross River State between the ages of 18 and 32 years drawn from the four ethnic groups Lokaa, Ayiga, Agoi and Ekoi of Yakurr L.G.A. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Health Research Ethics Committee on Human Subjects of the Ahmadu Bello University Zaria and self-administered proforma was used which were completed by the enumerators. Body anthropometrics were measured using stadiometer and measuring tape from which BMI was calculated. The study showed that the overall mean age of the subjects was 24.75 ± 4.05 years. The average ages of the subjects from Agoi, Ayiga, Ekoi and Lokaa ethnic groups were 24.26
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± 4.35, 25.72 ± 3.58, 24.78 ± 4.21 and 24.23 ± 3.85 years respectively. The mean height of the overall sample population was 165.70 ± 6.26 cm, with a mean height for males and females 169.11 ± 5.50 cm and 162.29 ± 4.99 cm respectively. The mean height for Agoi, Ayiga, Ekoi and Lokaa ethnic groups were 162.61 ± 4.87, 166.00 ± 7.29, 167.15 ± 6.03 and 167.04 ± 5.53 cm respectively, indicating that the subjects from Ekoi ethnic group are significantly taller in height when compared to subjects from Agoi, Ayiga and Lokaa ethnic groups. The was a statistically significant (P < 0.001) difference in anthropometric parameters between male and female.Also, males showed higher correlation between measured variables and stature compared to females. Linear regression models for stature estimation from anthropometric variables of each ethnic group were generated. Sitting height, thigh length, leg length, demispan length and hand breadth and combination could be applied for height estimation in Yakurr adult‟s population, although sitting height had the highest precision as single prediction parameter.
The present study could be of immense benefit to forensic anthropology,establishing ancestral relationship and stature estimation among adultmale and female of the four ethnic groups of Yakurr of Cross River State in south-south of Nigeria.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page…………………………………………………………………………….……i
Declaration………………………………………………………………………….……ii
Certification………………………………………………………………………………..iii
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………….…..iv
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………….vi
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………..vii
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………….….…x
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………….…….xiii
List of Appendices…………………………………………………………………..…..xv
List of Plates……………………………………………………………………………..xvi
Abstract………………………………………………………………………..…..…..xvii
1.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….1
1.1 Background of the Study………………………………………………………..1
1.2 Statement of Research Problem…………………………………………..…….5
1.3 Significance of Study………………………………………………………..…..5
1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study………………………………………………..6
1.4.1Aim of the Study……………………………………………………………………6
1.4.2Objectives of the Study…………………………………………………………….6
1.5 Research Hypotheses…………………………………………..………..……….6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………….7
2.1 Historical Background of Stature Estimation………………………………….7
2.2 The Estimation of Stature from Length Parameters of the Body………………15
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2.2.1 Demispan length……………………………………………………..…….……15
2.2.2 Biaxillarylength……………………………………………………….…..…….19
2.2.3 Neck length……………………………………………………………….…..…20
2.2.4 Hand length………………………………………………………………………20
2.2.5 Thigh length………………………………………………………………..…….24
2.2.6 Foot length………………………………………………………………..….….26
2.2.7 Sitting height………………………………………………………………,,.…..33
2.3 Effect of Age on Stature……………………………………………….……….34
2.4 Process of Growth………………………………………………………..….…35
2.5 Sexual Dimorphism in Stature and Factors
Affecting Stature Determination…………………………………………..….36
2.6 Importance of Stature in Public Health………………………………….……37
2.7 Secular Trend in Stature………………………………………………..…..….38
2.8 Comparing Living Stature and Cadaveric Stature……………………………39
2.9 Abnormality of Height………………………………………………….…..….40
3.0 MATERIAL AND METHODS………………………………………….……..42
3.1 Research Participants…………………………………………………….…….42
3.2 Study Area………………………………………………………………..………42
3.3 Cross River State………………………………………………………….…….44
3.3.1Climate of Cross River State……………………………………………….…….44
3.3.2Yakurr…………………………………………………………………….………45
3.3.3Occupation……………………………………………………………………..…46
3.3.4 The Climate of Yakurr……………………………………………………..……..47
3.3.5 Natural Vegetation of Yakurr…………………………………………….………47
3.4 Methodology………………………………………………………………..……47
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3.5 Data Collection Technique………………………………………………..…….48
3.6 Sampling Size Determination…………………………………………….…….48
3.7 Anthropometry…………………………………………………………………..49
3.8 Ethical Approval……………………………………………………………..….58
3.9 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria…………………………………………..……58
3.9.1 Inclusion Criteria………………………………………………………….………58
3.9.2 Exclusion Criteria………………………………………………………….…….58
3.10Statistical Analyses……………………………………………………….……..59
4.0 RESULTS………………………………………………………………….…….60
4.1 Analyses of Study Population…………………………………………….…….60
4.2 Anthropometric Variables and Height…………………………………….…..60
4.3 One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)……………………………….…….93
4.4 Correlation between Anthropometric Variables………………………….…105
4.5 Linear Regression Models for the Anthropometric Variables………….…..115
5.0 DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………..….141
6.0 Conclusion and Recommendations……………………………………….…..152
6.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….…..152
6.2 Recommendations……………………………………………………………….153
6.3 Contribution to Knowledge……………………………………………………154
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………….155
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………….174
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Stature (height) has been reported as one of the most important anthropometric parameters which determines the physical identity of an individual (Ozaslan et al., 2006). Because of this, the reliability of stature estimation from upper extremity measurements as well as lower extremity and other body segments has been documented. The usefulness of this, is continually been applied in forensic medicine (Kanchan et al., 2008) clinical practice, anthropology, and other medical sciences (Krishan and Vij, 2007).
Estimation of stature has a significant importance in the field of forensic anthropometry. To assess the height of an individual, from measurements of different parts of the body, has always been of immense interest to anatomists, anthropologists and forensic experts (Danborno et al., 2009).Physical anthropologists have been mainly concerned with the study of the human origin and human evolution as well as the varieties of mankind in different parts of the world (Duyar and Pelin, 2003). Estimation of stature of an individual from the skeletal material or from the mutilated or amputated limbs or parts of limbs has obvious significance in the personal identification, in the events of murders, accidents or natural disasters mainly concerns with the forensic identification analysis (Ozaslan et al., 2003). Stature along with age, race and gender, the big four parameters, are considered to develop the anthropometrical databases, these data can confirm the process of identification (Ekezie et al., 2015).
The relationship between specific body dimensions /proportions can be used to help solve crimes in the absence of complete evidence. For example, it has been proved that stature can be estimated from imprints of the hand, foot or footprints or from a shoe left at the scene of a crime (Hairunnisa, 2014). Similarly, the stature of a victim can be estimated when a part of body, such as a long bone, or hand, is all that remains. Relationships between body parameters vary from population to population and ethnic
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origin to ethnic origin due to differences in nutrition and levels of physical activity (Hairunnisa, 2014).
Anthropometric technique commonly used by anthropologists and adopted by medical scientists has been employed to estimate body size for over a hundred years (Ozaslan et al., 2003). Stature provides insight into various features of a population including nutritional health and genetics. Stature is considered as one of the parameters for personal identification (Anite, 2007).
Estimation of stature is considered to be an important assessment in the identification of unknown human remains. The hand bones have been recognized as good anthropometric parameters and have been shown to exhibit sexual dimorphism. A study was carried out by Numan et al. (2013) on estimation of stature from anthropometric measurement of hand in three major ethnic groups in Nigeria. Other studies involving Nigerian populations were carried out by Danborno and Elukpo (2008) who estimated stature in Northern Nigerian subjects when they used the dimensions of hand.
In forensic investigations, the dimensions of the hand and foot have been used in the determination of sex, age, and stature of an individual. Stature reconstruction is important as it provides forensic anthropological estimation of the height of a person in the living state which plays a vital role in the identification of individual remains (Bhatnagar et al., 1984; Boldsen, 1984). Intact long limb bones have been used in the derivation of regression equations for stature assessment in different population groups. Anthropologists observe and compared the relation between body and segments to highlight variations between and within groups. Determination of stature is a major concern in forensic medicine and forensic anthropology (Fessler et al., 2005). The bone area values at different sites strongly correlates to muscle strength and also correlate to body size, height, weight, lean mass, fat mass and body mass index (BMI) (Fessler et al.,
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2005). It is commonly accepted that standards for skeletal identification vary among different populations and the standard for one population may not be used for another (Thakur and Rai, 1987; Iscan, 1988).
In the last half of the 20th century, studies have been more vigorous when skeletal collections have been assembled in many parts of the world (Ozaslan et al., 2003). There has been an increase in the frequency of various mass disasters (air and train crash, bombing, mass suicide, flooding, powerful storm). To the list one should add the more recent tragedies such as the Marmara earthquake, Turkey and the attack on the World Trade Center and Pentagon in the US where thousands of people were killed (Ozaslan et al., 2003).
The hand length was found to be the most reliable alternative and the hand can be used as a basis for estimating age-related loss in height. The length of the body while alive is one of the key parameters established in the course of identification of unknown skeletal remains (Auberch and Ruff, 2004; Hauser et al., 2005).
Hand length could be used to predict body weight status and body surface area independent of the sex of the individual (Bidmos, 2009). Correlation between hand length and foot length has also been studied and that if the hand length is known, the foot length can be predicted and vice-versa. Hand length has been shown to be a reliable and precise means in predicting the height of an individual (Gauld and Rakhir, 1996: Ebite et al., 2000).
Establishing personal identification of victims is often required and the estimation of stature from extremities and their parts plays an important role in identifying the dead in forensic examinations (Nath et al., 1998; Munoz et al., 2001). The reconstruction of stature has been a subject of study since the beginning of the 19th century in the
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specialized areas of forensic anthropology which deals with the application of methods and techniques of analyzing skeletal remains (Trotter and Glesser, 1951; Iscan, 1988; Iscan, 2001).
It is already well known in scientific literature that the measurement of body height is important in many settings: it is an important measure of body size and gives an assessment of nutritional status (Datta, 2011), as well as an important measure of determination of basic energy requirements, standardization of measures of physical capacity and adjusting drug dosage, and evaluation of children‟s growth, prediction and standardization of physiological variables such as lung volumes, muscle strength, glomerular filtration and metabolic rate etc. (Mohanty et al., 2001; Golshan et al., 2003; Golshan et al., 2007; Ter Goon et al., 2011). However, the exact body height cannot always be determined the usual way because of various deformities of extremities or in patients who have undergone amputations or similar injuries. In such circumstances, an estimate of body height has to be derived from other reliable anthropometric indicators such as hand and foot lengths (Sanli et al., 2005; Agnihotri et al., 2007; Agnihotri et al., 2008; Kanchan et al., 2008b; Rastogi et al., 2008), knee height (Hickson and Frost, 2003; Fatmah, 2010; Karaday et al., 2012), length of the forearm (Ilayperuma et al., 2010), sitting height (Fatmah, 2010), arm span (Aggrawal et al., 2000; Bjelica et al., 2012). Therefore, all these anthropometric indicators which are used as an alternative to estimate body height are very important in predicting age-related loss in body height. Also in identifying individuals with disproportionate growth abnormalities and skeletal dysplasia or body height loss during surgical procedures on the spine (Mohanty et al., 2001), as well as predicting body height in many older people as it is very difficult to measure it precisely, and sometimes impossible because of mobility problems and kyphosis (Hickson and Frost, 2003). However, the associations of arm span and body height was
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found to vary in different ethnic and racial groups (Bjelica et al., 2012; Popovic et al., 2013).
1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
There is a need to have representative anthropometric data for all ethnic groups. While this exists for some, there is paucity of data on Lokaa, Ayiga, Agoi and Ekoi ethnic groups of Cross River State. This work is a step to bridge that gap and stimulate further research. The use of hand lengths, foot lengths and other body dimensions to predict stature has not been reported for the Yakurr population of Cross River State. Cross River has different ethnic groups with the major ones Efik, Ejagham, and Bekwarra, all the three ethnic mainly located in the three senatorial districts namely Southern, Central, and Northern, respectively. When available literature was searched, it was discovered that there was no published literature on estimation of stature in Yakurr indigenes ofCross River State using hand dimensions and other body segments. Thus, the main aim of this work was to establish the standards for stature estimation in indigenes of Yakurr, Cross River State by obtaining population‑specific regression equations which can be used for estimating stature from anthropometric measurement of the hand, leg, foot and other body segments.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION/ SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
This study could provide anthropometric data on the various ethnic groups of Yakurr. Comparisons made with other populations could contribute to the understanding of the relative status of Yakurr population in the context of the anthropometric variations around the world. In forensic anthropology, this study can be used by law enforcement agents and forensic scientists to identify fragmentary and dismembered human remains in Nigerian adults of Yakurr descent of Cross River State. This study can also help in prediction of heights of Yakurr tribe of Cross River State.
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1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.4.1 Aim of the Study
The aim of this study was to determine the anthropometric parameters and estimate stature using anthropometric parametersin four different ethnic groups (Lokaa, Ayiga, Agoi and Ekoi) of Yakurr Local Government Area (LGA) ofCross River State, Nigeria.
1.4.2 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study were to:
i. determine some anthropometric parameters in Lokaa, Ayiga, Agoi and Ekoi ethnic groups of Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria.
ii. investigate sexual dimorphism in anthropometric parameters of Lokaa, Ayiga, Agoi and Ekoi ethnic groups in Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria.
iii. determine the relationship between stature and some anthropometric parameters in Lokaa, Ayiga, Agoi and Ekoi ethnic groups of Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria.
iv. generate predictive equations for stature estimation for the study population.
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
In order to investigate the above listed objectives, the following working hypotheses were proposed:
i. demi span, hand, finger, leg, foot, neck, thigh, biaxillary lengths and sitting height will strongly predict stature in both males and females in the ethnic groups studied.
ii. predictive equation generated will differ in the ethnic groups studied.
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