ABSTRACT
In a laboratory study aimed at determining the effect on nutrient composition of sorghum beer residue (SBR) supplemented with urea and methionine and passed through a 2nd fermentation process. Four (4) levels of urea (0.5,1.0,1.5 and 2.0%) and four (4) levels of methionine (0.29, 0.33, 0.37, and 0.41%)were mixed which resulted in a total of sixteen (16) urea to methionine mixing ratios. Sixteen (16) samples of SBR were treated with the 16 urea and methionine ratios and subjected to 4 days fermentation with bovine rumen liquor as inoculum. SBRsupplementation with urea to methionine ratio of 1.5: 0.37 % after 4 days fermentation resulted in significant increase in protein biomass from 21.73 to 38.19%. The protein biomass produced contained all the essential amino acids which were superior compared to those of groundnut cake (GNC) and other feed ingredients.In an experimental trial, the effect of feeding urea and methionine supplemented and refermented SBR (RSBR) at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% replacement levels in broiler chickens starter and finisher diets were investigated. Five dietary treatments were formulated to be iso-nitrogenous and iso-caloric to provide 23 and 20.5% crude protein (CP) for starter and finisher diets respectively. Three hundred and forty-five (345) day-old broiler chicks (Zam breed) were randomly allocated to 15 pens in groups of 23 birds per pen. The five diets (replicated three times) were randomly allocated to the pens of broilers on deep litter concrete flooring.(At the end of starter and finisher phases, daily feed intake (DFI), weight (WG) gain, feed: gain (F/G) ratio and feed cost per kilogram (kg) of body weight gain were evaluated). Daily feed intake of broiler chickens on 50 and 75% RSBR diets were similar (P>0.05) and significantly higher (P<0.05) than those on other diets during the starter phase but during the finisher phase, DFI of birds on 50 and 100% RSBR were similar (P>0.05) and significantly different (P<0.05) compared to those on control and other diets. Daily weight gain (DWG) of birds on 25, 50 and 75% RSBR were as good (P>0.05) as the control diet at starter period. The daily weight gain of birds on the control, 25 and 50% RSBR diets were similar (P>0.05) but better than that of birds on 75 and 100% RSBR diets during the finisher period. Feed to gain ratio of birds fed the control and 25% RSBR inclusion levels were similar (P>0.05) and better (P<0.05) than those fed on other diets during the starter and finisher periods respectively. Feed cost per kg gain of body weight of birds on 25 and 50% RSBR starter and finisher diets were similar to the control diet, and significantly lower (P<0.05) compared to that of birds on 75 and 100% RSBR. Mortality of birds during the eight-week trial on the treatments was low. Dressing percentage of birds on 50% RSBR diet was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those on control and other diets. Heart and gizzard percentages of birds on 100% RSBR diet were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those on control and other diets.The parked cell volume, hemoglobin and total protein concentrations (g/dl) were within normal values.This study indicates that economically, up to 50% of RSBR could replace GNC in the diets of starter and finisher broiler birds respectively without adverse effect on growth performance and carcass yield.In a second feeding trial, performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens fed 75% urea and methionine treated and fermented sorghum beer residue (RSBR) diets supplemented with and
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without enzymes (Nutriad®(N), Zymos-N® (Z) and Fullzyme® (F)) were investigated. Three hundred and forty five (345) day-old broiler chicks were randomly assign to five (5) dietary treatments with three (3) replicates (15 pens), each consisting of twenty three (23) birds in a completely randomized design. Diets 1 (control), 2, 3, 4, and 5 contained 0% RSBR, 75% RSBR, 75% RSBR plus Nutriad (+ N), 75% RSBR plus Zymos-N(+Z) and 75% RSBR plus Fullzyme(+F) respectively. The daily feed intake and weight gain of birds on +N and +Z diets were similar (P>0.05) but significantly higher (P<0.05) than those on control, 2 and 5 (+F) diets during the starter and finisher periods. The feed to weight gain ratio during the starter period were similar (P>0.05) for birds on all enzymes supplemented diets but significantly lower (P<0.05) compared to birds on control. During the finisher phase, the feed to gain ratio was least (P<.0.05) with birds on +N diet and highest (P<.0.05) with birds on 75% RSBR diet. While feed cost per kg gain was significantly lower (P<0.05) during the starter phase for birds on +F.The least feed cost per kg gain during the finisher period was shown by birds on +N diet compared to that of birds on other diets. The dressing and thigh weight percentages were significantly higher (P<0.05) for birds on +N diet compared to those on control and other diets. The heart and gizzard percentage for birds on 75% RSBR were significantly higher (P<.0.05) compared to that for birds on other diets. This study indicated that feeding 75% RSBR supplemented with Nutriad and Zymos-N enzymes supported growth performance and carcass yield at lower feed cost per kilogram of broiler chicken weight produce
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE – – – – – – – – – i DECLARATION – – – – – – – – iiCERTIFICATION – – – – – – – – iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT – – – – – – – iv DEDICATION – – – – – – – – v ABSTRACT – – – – – – – – – viTABLE OF CONTENTS – – – – – – – ix LIST OF TABLES – – – – – – – – xvii LIST OF FIGURES – – — – – – – – xix LIST OF APPENDICES – – – – – – – xx LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS – – – – – – – xxi 1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION – – – – 1
1.1 Background and statement of the problem – – – – 1
1.2 Justification of the study – – – – – – 4
1.3 Objectives – – – – – – – – 5
1.4 Research Hypothesis – – – – – – – 6
2.0 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATUREREVIEW – – 8 2.1. Renewable biological materials as biomass – -. – – 8
2.1.1 Woody Biomass – – – – – – – 9
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2.1.1.1 Social Benefits – – – – – – – 9 2.1.1.2 Ecological and Environmental Benefits – – – – 9
2.1.1.3 Economic Benefits – – – – – – – 10
2.1.2 Non-woody Biomass – – – – – – – 11 2.1.3 Processed form of fuel plant biomass – – – – 12
2.1.4 Processed waste – – – – – – – 12
2.2.0 The use of agro-industrial by-products in poultry nutrition – – 13
2.2.1 By-products of brewing and malting industry- – – – 14
2.3.1 Brewers’ dried grains (BDG) – – – – – – 15 2.3.1.1 Nutrient composition of brewers’ dried grains. – – – 16 2.3.1.2 Effect of brewer’s dried grains on the performance of chickens – 17 2.3.2 Sorghum beer residue (SBR) – – – – – – 18 2.3.2.1 Nutritive characteristics of sorghum beer residue – – – 18 2.3.2.2 Effect of sorghum beer residue (SBR) on the performance ofchickens 19 2.4.0 Fibre in monogastric nutrition – – – – – 20 2.4.1 The effect of fibre in pig nutrition – – – – – 21 2.4.2 Effect of fibre in poultry nutrition – – – – – 22 2.5.0 Improvement of the nutritive value of feedstuff through various Treatments – – – – – – – – 23 2.5.1 Physical treatments – – – – – – – 24
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2.5.1.1 Grinding – – – – – – – – 24 2.5.1.2 Ionizing radiation – – – – – – – 24 2.5.1.3 Steam treatment – – – – – – – 24 2.5.2 Chemical treatments – – – – – – – 25 2.5.2.1 Soaking – – – – – – – – 26 2.5.2.2 Spraying – – – – – – – – 26 2.5.2.3 Ensiling – – – – – – – – 26 2.5.2.4 Ammonia treatment – – – – – – – 27 2.5.3 Biological treatment – – – – – – – 28 2.6.0 Rumen microbiology – – – – – – – 29 2.7.0 Effect of fermentation on nutrient composition of feedstuffs – – 31 2.8.0 Effect of urea and Sulphur supplementation on fermentation of feedstuff 31 2.8.1 Effect of urea supplementation on protein Biomass production – 32 2.8.2 Effect of Sulphur supplementation on Protein Biomass Production – 36 2.8.2.1 Sources of Sulphur – – – – – – – 38 2.8.3 Effect of urea and sulphur supplementation on bacterial protein synthesis 39 2.9.0 The use of enzymes in monogastric nutrition – – – 42 2.9.1 Benefits of Enzymes supplementation in Poultry Rations – – 43 2.9.1.1 Reduction in Digester Viscosity. – – – – – 44
2.9.1.2 Increase in Available Energy – – – – – – 44
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2.9.1.3 Improvement in Nutrient Digestibility: – – – – 45 2.9.1.4 Reduction in Excreta Moisture: – – – – – 47 2.9.1.5 Health improvement: – – – – – – – 47 2.9.1.6 Impact on environment: – – – – – – 47 2.9.2 Enzyme supplementation in poultry rations – – – – 48 3.0 CHAPTER THREE; MATERIALS AND METHODS- – – 53 3.1.0 The experiments – – – – – – – 53 3.2.0 Experimental site and sources of experimental materials – – 53 3.3.0 Sources and nature of Sorghum beer residue (SBR) – – – 54 3.4.0. Determination of the effect on nutrient composition of sorghum beer residue passed through a 2nd fermentation process. – – 54 3.4.1 Inoculum preparation – – – – – – – 54 3.4.2 Substrate inoculation: – – – – – – – 55 3.4.3 Fermentation – – – – – – – – 56 3.5.0 Chemical analysis – – – – – – – 57 3.6.0 Microbiological Analysis – – – – – – 57 3.6.1. Media preparation – – – – – – – 57 5.6.2. Preparation of the dilution – – – – – – 57 3.6.3 Serial dilution – – – – – – – – 57
3.6.4. Inoculation of plates – – – – – – – 58
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3.5.5 Bacteria count on plates – – – – – – 58 3.6.6 Chemical analysis – – – – – – – 59 3.7.0 Determination of the effect on nutrient composition of SBR Supplemented with urea and passed through a 2nd stage fermentationprocess. – 59 3.8.0 Determination of the effect on nutrient composition of SBRsupplemented with sulfur and passed through a 2nd fermentation process. – – 60 3.9.0 Determination of the effect on nutrient composition of SBR supplemented with urea and methionine and passed through a 2nd stage fermentation process. – – – – – – – – 61 3.10.0 Processing of sorghum beer residue for on-farm feeding trials – 62 3.10.1 Determination of amino acid composition – – – – 63 3.11.0 Experiment 1. Effect of feeding urea and methionine treated and Fermentedsorghum beer residue on the performance and carcass characteristics ofbroiler chickens- – – – – – 64 3.11.1 Broiler starter phase (0- 4 weeks) – – – – – 64 3.11.2 Broiler finisher phase (4-8 weeks) – – – – – 66 3.11.3 Carcass and hematological characteristics of broilers fed RSBR (0-8weeks) – – – – – – – – 68 3.11.4 Data analysis – – – – – – – – 69 3.11.5 Cost Analysis – – – – – – – – 69 3.12.0 The performance of broiler chickens fed 75% urea and methionine treated and fermented sorghum beer residue diets supplemented with specific multi-enzymes – – – – – – – 69 3.12.1 Experimental design and dietary treatments – – – 69 3.12.2 The starter phase (0-4 weeks) – – – – 70 3.12.4 Finisher Phase (4-8 weeks) – – – – – – 73
3.12.5 Carcass characteristics of finished broilers – – – – 75
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3.12.6 Statistical analyses – – – – – – – 75 3.12.7 Cost Analysis – – – – – – – – 75 4.0 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS – – 76 4.1.1 Laboratories Studies – – – – – – – 76 4.1.2 The effect of 2nd stage fermentation process and nutrient composition OfSBR – – – – – – – – 76 4.1.2.1 Physical characteristics of urea and methionine supplemented and fermented SBR (RSBR). – – – – – – 76 4.1.4 Effect of different inoculum concentration on nutrient composition of SBRafter 4 days fermentation – – – – – 76 4.1.5 Effect on nutrient composition of SBR with urea Supplementation after 4 days fermentation – – – – 78 4.1.6. Effect on nutrient composition of methionine treated and fermented Sorghumbeer residue – – – – – – – 80 4.1.7 Effect on nutrient composition of urea and methionine treated and Fermentedsorghum beer residue. – – – – – 82 4.1.8. Bacteria population count on wet re-fermented sorghum beer residue samples on plates – – – – – – – 86
4.2.0. Comparison of the average chemical composition and amino acid profiles offermented SBR samples urea, methionine and urea and methionine supplementation- – – – – – – 88
4.3.0 Comparison of the amino acid profile of the protein of urea and
methionineTreatedand fermented SBR with that of other proteins – 90
4.4.0 On-farm preparation of re-fermented urea and methionine supplemented
Sorghum Beer Residue – – – – – – 92
4.5.0 Effect of feeding graded levels of fermented nitrogen plus sulfur
supplemented Sorghum Beer Residue on the performance and carcass characteristic of broiler Chickens – – – – – 92
4.5.1 Starter Period (0-4 weeks) – – – – – – 92
4.5.2 Finisher Period (4-8 weeks) – – – – – – – 95
4.5.3 Feeding trial (0-8 weeks) – – – – – – 98
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4.5.4. Behaviors of birds on RSBRdiets – – – – – 100 4.5.5. Feathering of starter birds on RSBR diets – – – – 100 4.5.6 Carcass characteristics of finished birds – – – – 100 4.5.7 Hematological characteristics. – – – – – 103
4.6.0 Performance of broiler chickens fed 75% Urea and methionine –treated
Andfermented Sorghum Beer residue diets supplemented with specific multi-enzymes. – – – – – – – 105 4.6.1 Physical observation1 – – – – – – 105 4.6.2 Broiler starter phase (0-4 weeks) – – – – – – 105 4.6.3 Broiler finisher phase (5-8 week) – – – – – 107 4.6.4 Carcass characteristics – – – – – – 109 5.0 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION- – – – – – 113 5.1.0. Effect of different inoculum concentration on nutrient composition of SBRon 4 days fermentation. – – – – – – 114 5.2.0 Effect on nutrient composition of SBR with urea and methionine treatment after 4days fermentation – – – – – – 114 5.3.0 Effect on nutrient composition of urea and methionine supplemented and fermented SBR – – – – – – – 116 5.4.0 Comparison of the amino acid profiles of SBR, FSBRN, FSBRSand RSBR – – – – – – – – 117 5.5.0 Comparison of the amino acid profile of RSBRwith that of other Proteins Standards. – – – – – – – – 118 5.6.0 Effect of feeding graded levels of RSBRon performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens. – – – – – 119 5.7.0 Performance of broiler chickens fed 75% ureaand methionine–treated Andfermented sorghum beer residue diets supplemented with specific Multi-enzymes- – – – – – – – 128 6.0 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
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RECOMMENDATIONS – – – – – – 150 6.1 SUMMARY OF THE MAJOR FINDINGS – – – – 152 6.1.1 Determination of the effect on nutrient composition of sorghum beer residue passed through a second fermentation process – – – 137
6.1.2 Effect of feeding urea plus sulfur Supplemented and fermented sorghum
Beerresidue on the performance and carcass characteristic of broiler Chickens – – – – – – – – 138 6.1.3 Performance of broiler chickens fed 75% urea and methionine treated and fermented sorghum beer residue diets supplemented with specific multi- enzymes – – – – – – – – 139
6.2 CONCLUSION – – – – – – – 139
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY – – – – 140 6.4 RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER STUDIES – – – 140 REFERENCES – – – – – – – – 141 APPENDICES – – – – – – – – – 163
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and statement of the problem
According to Food Security Guide (FSG) (2011), over one billion people experience the hardship that hunger imposes. Today these figures continue to rise even amidst the riches of the 21st century. With the increasing population growth, economic instability and climate change, today food security has become an urgent challenge for national and global governance.
When the FAO Cereal Index doubled in 2008 according to Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC) (2011), food security became a global crisis. That the world’s poorest household spends 60-100% of their income on food; without any mechanism to cope with rising prices other than to reduce the volume or nutritional quality of their consumption. At the 2009 World Summit on food security, richer countries were called to reorganize their misplaced priorities in order to tackle global food insecurity. Despite many similar political commitments, the number of people lacking access to minimum diet rose from 824 million in the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) baseline year 1990 to 1,020 million in 2009 (CFSC, 2011).
A 2009 report by the International Food Policy Research Institute estimated that in the absence of resolute government action, food availability in the sub-Saharan African region will average 500 calories less per person in 2050, a 21 percent decline (CFSC, 2011). The Food Security Centre (FSC) at the University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany, had a mission to make effective and
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innovative scientific contributions in research, teaching and policy advice to eradicate hunger and achieve food security in Africa, Asia and Latin America (FSC, 2011).
The diet of a particular household in Nigeria today is occasionally supplemented with protein of vegetable sources, which fall short in meeting the protein requirement of an individual. This is as a result of the drastic drop in the daily intake of meat/eggs as a source of protein for an average family. Beszedits and Lugowski as cited by Shier and Purwono (1994) reported an estimated 4 million metric tons annual shortfall of protein worldwide.
This trend in protein shortfall has left animal producers particularly of poultry, a great challenge to face. Dafwang and Odiba (1993) affirmed that with the national strategic agricultural postulation for an estimated growth rate of 7% per annum in the production of meat/eggs from poultry and other domestic animals, the animal protein available to the Nigerian would have increased to 5.322g per capita by the year 2010 which was still a far cry from the recommended 54g of animal protein by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). Therefore, the need to strive and meet the FAO recommendation for animal protein intake through commercial broiler chicken production cannot be over emphasized.
According to FAO (1984), when feed resources are limited, the best approach is to utilized crop residues and agro-industrial by-products more effectively. The global shortage of food and feed proteins has prompted animal nutritionist to seek protein production improvements from both conventional and nonconventional sources. One non-conventional source is the mass cultivation of microbial biomass using renewable substrates which occur abundantly in nature. Church and Pond
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(1988) affirmed that all feed ingredients of plant origin with crude protein greater than 20% can be used as protein sources in the diet.
Ruminant nutritionists and microbiologists have long been interested in manipulating rumen fermentation to enhance feedstuff utilization, improve production efficiency by ruminants and alleviate problems associated with current feeding practices (Lee et al., 2000).The reticulo-rumen provides a very favorable environment for microbial survival and activity. The organisms use nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients in developing cell protoplasm. A typical count of bacteria number in the rumen according to Church and Pond (1988) approaches between 25-50 billion/ml while typical counts of protozoa are in the order of 20-50,000/ml. The bacteria dry matter contains about 100g N/kg out of which 80% is in the form of amino acid and the remaining 20% being present as nucleic acid (McDonald et al., 1998).
In the fermentation process, waste products are transformed into new ingredients for use as feeds (Kherrati et al., 1998). The most commonly used substrates in solid state fermentation (SSF) are products of agro-residue which include bran, straw, sugarcane bagasse and residues of fruit processing industries (Suffian et al., 2010). SSF has been employed in the production of animal feed, hydrolytic enzymes, organic acids, gibberellins, flavors, bio pesticides, ethanol and mushrooms (Suffian et al., 2010).
Another by-product of considerable importance is the dried sorghum beer residue (SBR), which is a residue of home brewed beer in traditional Africa. It is a residue arising from the local brewing of “Burukutu” and “Pito” in Nigeria (Tyokpat, 1989), “Atella” in Ethiopia (Demeke, 2007) and “Dolo” in
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Burkina Faso (Pousga et al., 2007). There is growing interest in the use of SBR in Africa for livestock nutrition. The proximate composition of brewers’ sorghum beer residue was reported by Abdulmalik (1998) as follows: 93.72% DM, 30.16% CP, 11.82% EE, 12.93% CF, 2.51% Ash, and 42.58% NFE. Levels up to 20% and 15% of SBR were recommended by the author for inclusion in the diets of weaned and breeding does respectively. Pousga et al. (2007) gave the chemical composition of sorghum beer residue in Sapone area of Burkina Faso as follows; 94.79% DM, 23.3% CP, 7.9% CF, 5.5% EE, 7.5% Ash, 40.1% NDF, and 20.7% ADF. In Ethiopia, Demeke (2007) reported the chemical composition of “Atella” as follows: 92.3% DM, 21.8% CP, 7.15% EE, 54.0% NDF, 29.0% ADF and 5.80% Ash. The inclusion of “Atella” as the sole source of protein in starters ration of broilers chickens significantly (P<0.05) lowered feed intake and weight gain (Demeke, 2007).The local breweries for “Burukutu” and “Pito” are scattered all over Nigeria especially in parts of Kaduna, Benue, Bauchi, Borno and Gongola states (Tyokpat, 1989). SBR is therefore much accessible in these areas of the country.
With this insight and the quest for sourcing cheap feed ingredients, this study is aimed at enhancing the nutritive value of SBR with respect to protein content and quality through solid state fermentation after pretreatment with nitrogen and sulfur using rumen liquor as inoculums, as well as accessing the ideal level of incorporation into broiler diets.
1.2 Justification of the study
This study was motivated by the fact that large quantities of sorghum beer residue are being produced in Nigeria by the local brewing industry all year round that can be recycled
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for monogastric nutrition. The use of fermentation processes to produce microbial biomass has several advantages over other unconventional processes that rely on agricultural by-products, including the fact that fermentation processes are not subject to the variability of weather conditions and they can be controlled for product quantity and quality in virtually any geographic location (Rudravaram et al., 2006). Microbiological biosynthesis of protein has been reported to exhibit a fairly high growth rate, high protein biomass, high protein digestibility and interesting amino acid composition (Oshoma and Ikenebomeh, 2005). The process will not only help to recycle the sorghum beer residue but will also help to clean the waste. This process is also believed to be devoid of ethical and animal rights issues (Shahera and Ashour, 2002).
The solid state fermentation (SSF) offers numerous advantages for the production of proteins because of its high productivity, low-cost media, and less effort in processing (Yalemtesfa et al, 2010). The process will be cheap and simple to produce and is without negative effect on the environment. The technology can easily be adopted by both small and large scale farmers. This study will extend existing knowledge on the nutrient composition and utilization of sorghum beer residue in broiler chicken production. Also, some methodological steps to be taken in answering every question raised will be of great significance to professional peers.
1.3 Objectives
The objectives of the study were to determine;
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i. The effect on nutrient composition of sorghum beer residue passed through a 2nd stage fermentation process.
ii. The effect on nutrient composition of SBR with urea, methionine, and with urea and methionine supplementation passed through a 2nd stage fermentation process.
iii. The performance of broiler chickens raised on urea and methionine supplemented and refermented Sorghum Beer Residue (RSBR) based diets.
iv. The effect of urea and methionine supplemented and fermented SBR diets on carcass characteristics and organ weights of broiler chickens.
v. The performance of broiler chickens fed urea and methionine treated and fermented SBR, supplemented with Nutriad, Zymos-N and Fullzyme multi-enzymes using the best diet of objective iii above.
vi. The haematological characteristics of broiler chickens fed RSBR based diets.
vii. The effect of RSBR diets, supplemented with multi-enzymes on carcass characteristics and organs weights of broiler chickens.
viii. The effect of utilizing enzymes supplemented RSBR on the economic cost of producing a kilogramme weight of broiler chickens.
1.4 Research Hypothesis
The research hypothesis for this study were;
i. There are differences in nutrient composition of SBR when passed through a 2nd stage fermentation.
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ii. There are differences in nutrient composition of SBR with urea, sulfur, and with urea plus sulfur supplementation when passed through 2nd stage fermentation.
iii. There are differences in performance of broiler chickens raised on RSBR based diets.
iv. There are differences in carcass characteristics and organ weights of broiler chickens raised on RSBR based diets
v. There are differences in haematological characteristics of broiler chickens raised on RSBR based diets.
vi. There are differences in performance of broiler chickens raised on RSBR diets supplemented with multi-enzymes.
vii. There are differences in carcass characteristics and organ weights of broiler chickens raised on RSBR diets supplemented with multi-enzymes.
viii. There are differences in terms of economic cost of producing a kilogram weight of broiler chickens raised on RSBR based diets
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