ABSTRACT
The comparative study of cephalometric indices among the Igede and Idoma ethnic groups of Benue State was undertaken due to lack of adequate cephalometry among Nigerians. The anthropometric characteristics of 425 apparently normal adults of ages 17 – 40 years of Igede and Idoma ethnic extractions of Benue State, Nigeria with no physical deformities of the face and head were randomly selected for this study. Satisfactorily characterizations between the two ethnic groups wereclearly established. Four hundred and twenty five subjects were used for the study of which 158 were Igede and 267 were Idoma with mean age of 22.60.45 and23.00.47 year respectively. The anthropometric variables measured were head length, head width, bizygomatic distance, upper facial length, lower facial length, total facial length, nose width and skull height from which the cephalometric indices were calculated. The result showed that there were statistically significant differences (P<0.05) in some of the measured variables between the Igede and Idoma tribes of Benue State. The variables that were significantly different include the head width (55.02.60; 59.01.30), head length (75.0.40; 77.081.10) and nose width (11.3210.080.19) respectively with correlation coefficient at P<0.01. The study derived a linear regression equation of cephalic indices with other anthropometric parameters from which age, head width, head length and skull height could be predicted if one variable is known. The result from the present study showed that the cephalic indices and facial presentations among the two tribes are similar and probably could be an indication of having the same genetic origin. It could also be that after having stayed together for long time in the same environment, that environmental factor could have given rise to similar cephalic indices and facial features. The result also showed a positive correlation between the head width and bizygomatic distance and other anthropometric variables which could be used to predict cephalic indices among the
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Igedeand Idoma ethnic groups of Benue State, Nigeria. The result of the present study showed that the Igede males and females had cephalic indices of 78.86 and 79.43 respectively while the Idoma males and females had cephalic indices of 78.43 and 79.60 respectively. These results showed that the dominant head form among the Idomaand Igede Ethnic groups weremexocephalic head form respectively. Facial indices showed dominant hypereuriprosopic face type for both ethnic groups. The cephalic index showed sexual dimorphism among the two ethnic groups while facial indices showered a significant gender differences in the two ethnic groups studied. The results showed that the data obtained from the present study could be used in forensic anthropology and in establishing similarities in face and headof the two ethnic groups of Idoma and Igede of Benue State of Nigeria.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION …..……………………………………..…………………… iii ACKNOWLEDGMENT….………………………………………………………… iv DEDICATION…………………………………………………….………………… v CERTIFICATION……..……………………………………..……………………… vi ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………….. vii LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………….. xiii LIST OF FIGURES……………………………….………………..…………..….. xv CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………….…………………. 1 General introduction…………………………………………………………..…….. 1 STATEMENT OF RESEARCHPROBLEMS…………………………..……………. 5 1.1 Justification……….……………………………………………………..….. 5 1.2 Study hypothesis……….…………………………………………………….. 5
1.3 Aim and Objective ……….…………………………………………..…….. 5
1.4 Aim ……….………………………………………………………………… 5 1.5 Objective……….………………………………………………….……..….. 6
1.6 Significance of study …….……………………………………………….….. 6
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CHAPTER TWO (LITERATURE REVIEW) ……….…………………….……… 8 2.1 Overview of Cephalometry……….……………………………….………… 7 2.2 Role of cephalometry to physical appearance….…………………..……….. 9 2.3 Morphological and cephalometric Characteristics……………..…………….. 9 2.4 Cephalic, nasal indices and anthropology……….…………….…………….. 10 2.5 Cephalic and facial disorders……………………………….……………….. 13 2.6 Importance of cephalometry to science…………………..………………….. 16 2.7 Sexual dimorphism and cephalometric characterizations…………..……….. 18 2.8 Embryology and anthropometry of facial characteristics………..………….. 20 2.9 Anthropometry and muscular characteristics of head and face…….……….. 23 2.10 Brief history of Idoma and Igede ethnic groups………………..……………. 23 CHAPTER THREE (MATERIAL AND METHODS) ………………..….……….. 26 3.0 Materials and methods…………………………………………..………….. 26 3.1 Study location……………………………………………………………….. 26 3.2 Settlement pattern and urbanization…………………………..…………….. 26 3.3 Subjects used …………………………………………………….………….. 30 3.4 Material used……………………………………………….…………….….. 30
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3.5 Inclusion criteria…………………………………………………………….. 30 3.6 Exclusions……………………………………………….……………..…….. 30 3.7 Sample size determination……………………………….………………….. 31 3.8 Subject recruitment………………………………………………………….. 31 3.9 Methodology…………………………………………………………………. 32 3.10 Anthropometric data used………..…………………………………….…….. 32 3.11 Anthropometric dimension used in the study……………………………….. 32 3.12 Anthropometric measurements………………………………….………….. 32 3.13 Ethical consideration…………………………………………….………….. 41 3.14 Statistical analyses ………………………………………………………….. 43 CHAPTER FOUR (RESULTS) …………………….……………………………….. 44 4.1 Descriptive statistics of the study population……….……………………………….. 44 CHAPTER FIVE (DISCUSSION) ……………………………………..………….. 70 Discussion……………………………..…..……………………………….……….. 70 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………..……….. 75 RECOMMENDATION…………………………………………………….……….. 76 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………….…….. 77
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APPENDIX 1 ………………………………………………………….…………….. 84 Ethical report…………………………………………………………….………….. 87 Questionnaire……………………………………………………………………….. 88 Informed consent form……………………………………………………………….. 89
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
All human beings occupying this globe belong to the same species i.e. Homo sapiens. No two individuals are exactly alike in all their measurable traits, even genetically identical twins (monozygotic) differ in some respects. These traits tend to undergo changes in varying degrees from birth to death, in health and disease, and since skeletal development is influenced by a number of factors producing differences in skeletal proportions between different geographical areas, it is desirable to have some means of giving quantitative expression to variations which such traits exhibit (Gallot, 2004). Anthropometry as a study is a technique of expressing quantitatively the different forms of the human body. In other words, anthropometry means the measurement of human beings, whether living or dead or on skeletal material (Boaz., 2003). The use of anthropometry in the field of forensic science and medicine dated back to 1882 when Alphonse Bertillon, a French police expert invented a system of criminal identification based on anthropometric measurements. His system explained the extreme diversity of dimensions present in the skeleton of one individual compared to those using simple constructed calipers (Zollikofer et al., 2002). As anthropometry is an important part of biological/physical anthropology, hence the persons specializing in anthropometry are familiar with range of biological variability present in the human populations and its causes, and are well trained in comparative osteology, human osteology, craniometry, osteometry, racial morphology, skeletal anatomy and function (Montagu et al., 2006).
The term cephalometric anthropology can be coined for this branch of applied physical anthropology, involving the use of methods/techniques of anthropometry in measuring bones of the face and skull both living and dead. Anthropometric characteristics have direct relationship with sex, shape and form of an individual and these factors are intimately linked with each other and are manifestation of the internal structure and tissue components which in turn, are influenced by environmental and genetic factors (Danborno et al., 1997; Abbie et al., 2009). Anthropometric data are believed to be objective and allow the cephalometric examiner to go
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beyond subjective assessments (Panero et al., 1979; Radoc et al., 2000). Anthropometry can be subdivided into somatometry, cephalometry and osteometry. Somatometry is a subdivision of anthropometry for measurement of different body dimensions while keeping soft tissue intact either in the living body or cadaver including head and face. It is also considered as a major tool in the study of human biological variability including morphological variations. Somatometry is useful in the study of age estimation from different body segments in a given set of individuals (Zahra et al., 2006 and Oladipo et al., 2009). The importance of anthropology as a course using osteometry in the measurement of the skeleton and its parts cannot be over-emphasized. Anthropometry is being used more often in sexing the skeletal remains. Worldwide, various studies have been conducted on the determination of sex from variety of human bones including skull, pelvis, long bones, scapula, clavicle, and the bones like metatarsals, metacarpals, phalanges, patella, vertebrae, ribs etc and the most popular statistical model in sex determination has been developed (Reichs etal., 1998). Today, anthropometry plays an important role in industrial design, ergonomics and architecture where statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products (Rajlakshmi et al., 2001; Safikhani et al., 2007). The change in life styles, nutrition and ethnic composition of populations has led to changes in the distribution of body dimensions e.g. the epidemic of obesity which require regular update through the use of anthropometric data collections.
In evolutionary science, anthropometric studies today are conducted to investigate the evolutionary significance of differences in body proportion between populations whose ancestors lived in different environments. Human populations exhibit climatic variation patterns similar to those of other large-bodied mammals, following Bergmann’s rule, which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to be larger than ones in warm climates, and Allen’s rule, which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to have shorter, stubbier limbs than those in warm climates (Ganong, 2005). Today, ergonomic professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and working methods in order to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity. This includes physical ergonomics in relation to human
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anatomy, physiological and biomechanical characteristics; cognitive ergonomics in relation to perception, memory, reasoning, motor response including human–computer interaction, mental workloads, decision making, skilled performance, human reliability, work stress, training, and user experiences; organizational ergonomics in relation to metrics of communication, crew resource management, work design, schedules, teamwork, participation, community, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, and telework (Ganong, 2005). Measurement of the head and face in anthropometric study is done carefully by understanding some anthropometric landmarks which must be maintained in a better orientation. This is anatomically termed as Frankfurt Plane meaning that the skull head is positioned in a way where a line passes through the inferior border of left orbit to the upper border of the external auditory meatus. Hominids and primate study used this plane for both pathological and relative studies. Previous research findings put it that when anthropometry is combined with clinical methodology hadproduced knowledge on craniofacial framework and features that existed in various ethnic groups (Radoc et al., 2000). It is on this note that treatment of congenital anomalies on the face and head are established and has helped to create craniofacial databank on anomalies (Bharati et al., 2001). Data on facial measurements are indispensable to the precise determination of the degree of deviations from the normal and such data are urgently needed by medical professionals but scanty till now in western and northern Europe, Asia and Africa (Rajlakshmi, et al., 2001). Sexual and racial differences among humans have also been investigated. There is a sharp relationship in the skull of Negroes, Apes and Europeans but sexual dimorphism is marked more in mankind than other older primates (Hernandiz et al., 1992). This was explained using some fossil remains of cranium and facial bones which showed sexual dimorphism among mankind. Also similar statistical data have expressed satisfactorily cranial dimensions in relation to mass among mankind (Oladipo et al., 2009).
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With all these available data on cranium and faces, the results using anthropometric studies on height, age, nasal and cephalic length has been scanty in Nigeria. The relationship of measurements to each other is expected to be constant at specific ages. These relationships are expressed as ratio, index and regression technique. These proportions change dramatically from fetal period through childhood to adolescence because of the various interactions in genetic, environment, nutrition and biochemical factors (Daniel, 2004). Generally, cranial dimensions using landmarks like height, nose, length and cephalic indices vary in ethnic nationalities and among sexes (Iscan, 2010).
1.0 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
• Anthropometric parameters among ethnic groups are rarely available to evaluate adult relationships and ancestral tracing in Nigeria.
• Comparative data for cephalometric indices and anthropometric variables among ethnic groups in Nigeria are not available.
• Anthropometric study in Nigeria has scarcely been carried out among minority groups in
Benue State, Nigeria.
1.1 JUSTIFICATION
• Relationships and differences that exist between the various parts of the body could be of anthropological importance in crime state.
• The variables obtained through anthropometric measurements will serve as reference data for ethnic groups in Nigeria.
1.2 STUDY HYPOTHESIS
• There exist differences in cephalometric indices between the Igede and Idoma ethnic groups.
• Cephalometric indices will predict/correlate with other anthropometric outcomes in the two tribes.
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• There exists an association in cephalometric indices between the two ethnic groups.
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1.4 AIM The aim of the present study is to investigate any possible ancestral relationship using cephalometric indices between Igede and Idoma ethnic groups of Benue State, Nigeria. 1.5 OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are:
• To compare and establish relationship between Idoma and Igede ethnic groups of Benue
State using anthropometric parameters.
• To study the data obtained from the two tribes with a view to compare the cephalometric indices of other tribes in Nigeria.
• To study sexual dimorphisms in the cephalometric indices within the two tribes.
• To study any relationship in the craniofacial indices among Igede and Idoma ethnic groups of Benue state, Nigeria.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
• The significance of the study is to use cephalometric indices as a means of establishing ancestral relationships between the two tribes which will serve as a tool for settling the age long kingship feud among the two tribes.
• Also the study is relevant in forensic examinations using craniofacial presentations among Igede and Idoma tribes in crime scenes (Hernandsiz et al, 1992). Anthropometric study could be used to established medical template for industrial designs such as shoes and eye glasses.
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