ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted to determine the metabolizable energy of maize pap
waste (MPW) and rice milling waste (RMW) using adult male broiler birds. Eighteen
male adult broiler birds were used in the experiment. Eight birds were assigned to each of
the feedstuff with two birds left unfed which served as the negative control. Each of the
samples was ground, made into slurry and force-fed to sixteen 10-week old finisher
broiler birds that had been starved for 30 hours. The droppings were collected
quantitatively, dried and the gross energy was determined in a bomb calorimeter. The
results show that the gross energy, apparent and true metabolizable energy of MPW
(4.01, 2.60 and 3.03kcal/g) were significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of RMW (2.94,
0.8 and 1.09kcal/g), respectively. Prior to the determination of the true metabolizable
energy, two experiments were conducted concurrently to evaluate the effects of feeding
graded levels of MPW and RMW on the performance of broiler birds. A total of one
hundred and forty-four 2-week old broiler birds with average weight of 330g were
randomly allocated to four dietary treatments containing 0, 10, 20 and 30% MPW and
RMW, respectively. The effect of treatments on the final body weight (FBW), average
daily weight gain (DWG), average daily feed intake (DFI), feed conversion ratio (FCR),
feed cost per weight gain FC/WG, carcass quality and organ characteristics were
determined. Differences in DFI and ADG were not significant (P>0.05). Similarly, the
FBW of broilers fed the 0, 10, 20 and 30% MPW (3520g, 3470g and 3500g, respectively)
and RMW (3345g, 3329g, 3337g and 3330g, respectively) diets were found to be
comparable (P>0.05) within the different groups. However, feed cost per unit weight gain
decreased significantly with increasing levels of MPW and RMW in the diets. The lower
feed cost per kilogram meat produced on 30% MPW and RMW diets suggest that the
wastes are economically viable alternative energy sources. It was concluded that at up to
the 30% inclusion level of MPW and RMW in the diets, FBW and FCR were not
significantly affected (P>0.05). However, the financial return was positively affected
(P<0.05) at this level.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page ……………………………………………………………………………i
Certification …………………………………………………………………………..ii
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………iii
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………iv
Table of contents …………………………………………………………………..v
List of tables ……………………………………………………………………..viii
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………ix
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
1.1 Background………………………………………………………………….1
1.2 Statement of the problem……………………………………………………3
1.3 Objectives of the study………………………………………………………4
1.4 Justification………………………………………………………………….4
CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review
2.1 Metabolizable energy ………………………………………………………….6
2.1.1 Apparent metabolizable energy ………………………………………………..8
2.1.2 True metabolizable energy …………………………………………………….8
2.2 Merits of true metabolizable energy assay …………………………………10
2.3 Assumptions of metabolizable energy …………………………………….11
2.4 Sources of error in true metabolizable energy assay ……………………………12
2.5 Factors affecting metabolizable energy …………………………………………13
2.5.1 Species of birds ……………………………………………………………13
2.5.2 Age of birds …………………………………………………………………13
2.5.3 Sex of birds …………………………………………………………………14
2.5.4 Feed input …………………………………………………………………….14
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2.5.5 Pelleted and mashed diets …………………………………………………15
2.5.6 Acclimatization to change of diets …………………………………………15
2.5.7 Starvation period …………………………………………………………..16
2.5.8 Nutrient deficiency …………………………………………………………16
2.5.9 Excreta collection period ……………………………………………………..17
2.6 Endogenous energy losses ………………………………………………………17
2.7 Nitrogen retention …………………………………………………………18
2.8 Feedstuffs under investigation ……………………………………………….19
2.8.1 Rice milling waste………………………………………………………….19
2.8.2 Maize pap waste ……………………………………………………………19
2.9 Feed conversion ratio ………………………………………………………20
CHAPTER THREE: Materials and methods
3.1 Location ……………………………………………………………………22
3.2 Materials ……………………………………………………………………22
3.3 Experimental birds and management ………………………………………23
3.3.1 Experiment I………………………………………………………………..24
3.3.2 Experiment II ………………………………………………………………24
3.3.3 Experimental diets …………………………………………………………25
3.4 Experimental procedure ……………………………………………………29
3.5 Excreta collection …………………………………………………………….30
3.6 Gross energy determination………………………………………………………………..31
3.7 Nutrient retention study……………………………………………………32
3.8 Carcass and organ evaluation ………………………………………………33
3.9.1 Data collection and parameters measured ………………………………………33
3.9.2 Parameters calculated ………………………………………………………33
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3.10 Proximate analysis of the diets and excreta …………………………………..35
3.11 Statistical analysis………………………………………………………….35
CHAPTER FOUR: Results and discussion
4.1 Results………………………………………………………………………37
4.1.1 Metabolizable energy contents of maize pap and rice milling waste………37
4.1.2 Growth performance of broilers fed graded levels of MPW………………38
4.1.3 Apparent nutrient retention of broilers fed graded levels of MPW……………39
4.1.4 Carcass and organ characteristics of broilers fed graded levels of MPW….39
4.1.5 Growth performance of broilers fed graded levels of RMW……………………..41
4.1.6 Apparent nutrient retention of broilers fed graded levels of RMW…………..42
4.1.7 Carcass and organ characteristics of broilers fed graded levels of RMW…..42
4.2 Discussion…………………………………………………………………..44
4.2.1 Apparent metabolizable energy and true metabolizable energy……………44
4.2.2 Live weight gain……………………………………………………………44
4.2.3 Feed intake…………………………………………………………………45
4.2.4 Feed conversion ratio………………………………………………………45
4.2.5 Feed cost per weight gain…………………………………………………..46
4.2.6 Proximate analysis………………………………………………………….47
4.2.7 Apparent nutrient retention………………………………………………..47
4.2.8 Carcass and organ evaluation………………………………………………48
CHAPTER FIVE: Conclusion and recommendation
5.1 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………49
5.2 Recommendation ……………………………………………………………..50
References ………………………………………………………………………..51
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Livestock industry in Nigeria is ridden with myriad of problems, which have
resulted to a gross shortage of meat and other animal products (Nworgu, 2002).
The animal protein intake shortages in Nigeria observed in the early 1970s has
progressively worsened till date. The protein intake of an average Nigerian is about
53.8g with only 6.0 – 8.4g per caput per day of animal origin (Egbunike, 1997).
CBN (2003) revealed that North America, Western and Eastern European countries
consume 66, 39 and 33g of animal protein per head per day respectively; while an
average Nigerian consumes 7.5g which is below the recommended level of 27g per
caput per day. The sub-optimal consumption of animal protein by a large
percentage of Nigerian population has challenged not only livestock farmers, but
also researchers and policy makers.
Poultry industry is one of the major sources of animal protein and offers the
potential for bridging the protein deficiency gap existing in the country. However,
the inadequate supply of several grains and protein concentrates for poultry feeding
and the keen competition between man and animal for same have become the
major obstacle in poultry industry development in Nigeria (PAN, 1985; Ologhobo,
1992). Feed constitute the dominant input in animal production ranging from 65-
75% of the total cost of production. Similarly, feed ingredients account for over
90% of compound feed industry. Therefore, the relationship between feed
ingredient and animal product output is both direct and obvious. To depend on
alternative sources of ingredients, especially when it encourages a shift to
ingredients for which there is less competition, may help if the later is cheap and
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sufficiently available (Oluyemi and Roberts, 1979). The future of efficient and
profitable poultry production would, therefore, depend on finding cheaper and
alternative energy and protein sources to conventional protein and energy feed
ingredients.
Recently, much effort is being made to find the possibilities of utilizing
agro-industrial by-products in poultry nutrition (Henuk and Dingle, 2003). This
could lead to the reduction in the use of conventional feed ingredients such as
maize, soybean, sorghum, groundnut, wheat etc (El Boushy and Van der Poel,
2000) and help reduce pollution problems, decrease feed cost and increase
livestock production.
Agro-industrial by-products in Nigeria vary from primary processing of farm
produce wastes to wastes from agro-allied industries. Some of these wastes are left
unutilized, which often cause environmental pollution and hazard. Those that are
utilized do not have their full potentials harnessed. Agro-industrial by-products
which can be of tremendous use in the livestock industry for feeding animals
include maize pap waste and rice milling waste etc.
Since energy is one of the most expensive segments of a poultry ration,
accurate knowledge of the available energy content of feedstuffs is necessary to
formulate the most economical least-cost rations and to achieve profitable
production. Supplying adequate energy to birds is one of the most important
aspects of successful management program. It is by knowing and meeting the
nutrient requirements of the bird that their full genetic potentialities can be
realized.
Apparent metabolizable energy (AME) is the most widely used method for
evaluating poultry feedstuffs for available energy. However, since Sibbald (1976)
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developed a bioassay for true metabolizable energy (TME), a considerable amount
of research has been conducted to investigate the assay’s applicability. Sibbald’s
method has several advantages over the previous AME assays. It is simple, rapid,
and inexpensive. Besides its reported flexibility, reproducibility, and data quality
(Sibbald, 1976), the TME assay can be extended to measure bioavailable amino
acids (Likuski and Dorrel, 1979; Sibbald, 1979) and lipids (Sibbald and Kramer,
1978) in feedstuffs.
Although literature is replete of the importance of energy in poultry
nutrition, there are two feedstuffs of regional interest that require evaluation for
their nutrient composition especially their energy content. For such feedstuffs,
knowledge of their available energy will enhance their usefulness in poultry
feeding.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Most developing countries are facing difficulties in providing sufficient food
for their population. The cost of feed is very high and in recent years the price of
conventional or basic feeding ingredients has tremendously increased. This has
made livestock production very expensive. The growth rate of livestock sector in
Nigeria is still below the potentials of the country’s natural and human resources
due to high cost of agricultural inputs such as feed and modern equipment.
Ologhobo (1992) highlighted the problems facing animal feed and poultry
production in the tropics; amongst which is poor feed quality and escalating prices.
It is the need of the time to utilize unconventional feeds like agro-industrial byproducts
to make a balanced feed especially for poultry production efficiently.
Various studies have delved into the area of grain substitution by agro-industrial
by-products, not directly used by man, in animal diets (Farrell et al., 1991).
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However, information appears minimal on nutritional evaluation of these agroindustrial
by-products.
1.3 Objectives of the study
The main objective of this study is to determine the true metabolizable
energy of maize pap waste and rice milling waste. The specific objectives of the
study include the following:
To determine the growth response of broiler birds to diets containing graded
levels of maize pap waste and rice milling waste
To determine the effects of dietary inclusion of maize pap waste and rice
milling waste on internal organs and nutrient retention of broiler birds
To determine the cost effectiveness of feeding broiler starters and finishers with
diets containing maize pap waste and rice milling waste.
1.4 Justification
The science of nutrition involves providing a balance of nutrients that best
meets the animal’s needs for growth, maintenance and production. For economic
reasons, this supply of nutrients should be at least cost, and so we must supply only
enough for requirements, without there being any major excesses. It is very
difficult and very expensive to supply all nutrients at the exact nutrient needs rather
we have to oversupply some nutrients in practical situations, in an attempt to meet
the limiting nutrients. In poultry diets these limiting nutrients are usually energy
and some of the essential amino acids, such as methionine and lysine.
There is an urgent need to increase feed sources of our poultry enterprises
because limited feed resource is presently a major problem. The production of
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livestock feed in common use such as maize, groundnut, soybean meal etc. have
not met the demand for human consumption and so leaves inadequate surplus for
large scale poultry production in the tropics.
Agro-industrial by-products and crop residues represent a vast animal feed
resource, which are still largely unexploited. Although considerable research have
been, and are being carried out on the potentials of these by-products, very little
effective practical applications have been achieved. This research work was
designed to determine the true metabolizable energy of maize pap waste and rice
milling waste. It also investigated the comparative effects of diets containing these
agro-industrial by-products on growth performance of broiler birds. Broiler have
been chosen for use as experimental animals for this research because of their
ability to grow fast and attain slaughter weight within eight weeks can be achieved,
then considerable increases in animal production will follow, which will help to
reduce the acknowledge animal protein deficit in Nigeria
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