ABSTRACT
There were two trials carried out in this research, the first trial was conducted to investigate the
growth pattern, dry matter yield and biomass production of Congo grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis
R.C.M). The trial lasted for 24 weeks, during which plant height, number of leaves/plant, number
of tillers/plant, leaf-stem ratio, percentage soil cover, percentage greenness, dry matter yield and
biomass production were measured. The plant height of B. ruziziensis increased from 20cm at
week 4 to 135cm at week 24. Seven (7) tillers per plant was obtained at week 4, which increased
to twelve (12) at week 24. The percentage greenness also increased from 40% at week 4 to 95%
at week 24. The results showed that there were significant (P<0.05) differences in plant height,
number of leaves per plant and number of tillers/plant between weeks 4, 6, 8, 12, 18 and 24. The
leaf-stem ratio which was highest at week 6 (1.5:1) and lowest at week 18 and 24 (1.2:1) did not
differ significantly (P>0.05) between the various weeks. The results obtained also indicated that
the dry matter and fresh fodder yield production increased (P<0.05) from 5.7t ha-1 to 11.6t ha-1
and 8 to 32t ha-1, respectively from week 6 to week 24. The second study was done to compare
the performance of Yankasa sheep fed Brachiaria ruziziensis basal diet with different protein
supplements of Cotton Seed Cake (CSC), Palm Kernel Cake (PKC), Brewer’s Dried Grain
(BDG) and sole B. ruziziensis grass (control). Sixteen (16) Yankasa sheep weighing between
18.5 and 21.5kg and aged 9-12 months were used in the experiment. The total dry matter and
crude protein intake were highest (P<0.05) in animals on CSC supplement and lowest for those
on BDG supplement. Digestibility of dry matter (DM) ranged from 61.3% in BDG to 66.8 % in
CSC (P<0.05). Digestibility of crude protein was also highest in CSC (71.9%) and lowest in
BDG (67.06%). The total live weight gain (TLWG) increased (P<0.05) from 0.91kg in animals
vi
fed B. ruziziensis grass solely (control) to 2.5kg in those fed Cotton Seed Cake, while feed
conversion ratio reduced from 52.50 in B. ruziziensis to 29.15 in CSC treatment. It is concluded
from this experiment that Yankasa sheep utilized CSC better than PKC, BDG and Brachiaria
ruziziensis (control). It is therefore recommended that Congo Signal grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis
R.C.M) be harvested from week 24 for higher dry matter yield and biomass production. Also,
Brachiaria ruziziensis should be supplemented with Cotton Seed Cake at a rate of 250g/d for
better live weight and economic gain in Yankasa sheep production.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page …………………………………………………………………………… i
Declaration …………………………………………………………………………… ii
Certification …………………………………………………………………………… iii
Dedication …………………………………………………………………………… iv
Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………………… v
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………… vi
Table of contents ……………………………………………………………………. viii
List of tables ………………………………………………………………………… xiii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 Justification …………………………………………………………………… 4
1.2 Objectives of study …………………………………………………………… 6
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature review …………………………………………………………………….. 7
2.1 Origin, adaptation and distribution ……………………………………………… 7
2.2 Botanical description ..………………………………………………………………… 7
2.3 Congo grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis) as a forage crop ……..……..…………………… 8
2.4 Environmental requirements ……………………………………………………… 9
2.4.1 Soil requirements ……………………………………………………………… 9
2.4.2 Moisture requirements ……………………………………………………………… 10
2.4.3 Temperature requirement …………………………………………………… 11
viii
2.4.4 Light requirements …………………………………………………………………. 11
2.5 Land preparation, establishment and management………………………………… 12
2.6 Planting and Sowing depth ………………………………………………………13
2.7 Establishment of Congo grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis) ..……..………………… 13
2.8 Growth vigour …………………………………………………………………………. 14
2.9 Weed control and fertility management………………………………………………. 14
2.10 Cropping system and crop management practices…………………………………… 15
2.11 Compatibility with other grasses and legumes …………………………………… 16
2.12 Pests and diseases ………………………………………………………………. 17
2.13 Nutritive value and digestibility of B. ruziziensis…………………………………. 17
2.14 Production potential …………………………………………………………… 18
2.14.1 Green and dry matter yields ……………………………………………….. 18
2.14.2 Tillering and seed production …………………………………………………… 19
2.15 Genetics and breeding …………………………………………………………… 21
2.16 Varieties and cultivars …………………………………………………………… 23
2.17 Silage and hay utilization ………………….…………………………… 24
2.18 Animal production on Congo grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis) ….……………… 25
2.18.1 Grazing management of B. ruziziensis …….…………………………………… 25
2.18.2. Response to concentrate supplementation…………………………………………. 29
2.18.3 Response to protein supplementation………………………………………………. 30
ix
2.19 Toxic effect of Brachiaria species ……………………………………………………… 31
2.20 Nutritional value of Cotton Seed Cake.………………………………………………….. 32
2.20.1 Effects of processing of whole Cotton Seed and its gossypol content ………………… 34
2.20.2 Effects of mineral supplementation on toxicity of gossypol in nutrition ……………….. 34
2.21 Palm Kernel Cake/ meal …………………………………………………………………… 35
2.21.1 Nutritional value of Palm Kernel Cake …………………………………………………. 36
2.21.2 Digestibility and energy value of Palm Kernel Cake ……………………………………. 37
2.21.3 Protein value of Palm Kernel Cake ……………………………………………………… 39
2.21.4 Copper toxicity in sheep fed with Palm Kernel Cake supplement………..…………….. 39
2.21.5 Supplementation of Palm Kernel Cake to sheep …………..……………………………. 40
2.22 Brewer’s By-product of grains (Brewer’s Dried Grains)……………………………….… 40
2.22.1 Distribution of Brewer’s Dried Grain …………………………………………………… 41
2.22.2 Nutritional attributes of Brewer’s Dried Grain …………………………………………. 42
2.22.3 Digestibility and energy value of Brewer’s Dried Grain ……………………………….. 43
2.22.4 Protein value of Brewer’s Dried Grain …………………………………………………….43
2.22.5 Feeding sheep with Brewer’s Dried Grain ……………………………………………… 44
x
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Methods ……………………………………………………………….. 46
3.1 Experimental Site …………………………………………………………………………. 46
3.2 Climate ……………………………………………………………………………….. 46
3.3 Soil samples of the Experimental Plot ………………………………………………… 46
3.4 Experimental design and diets ………………………………………………………….. 47
3.5 Data collection and parameters taken ………………………………………………….47
3.6 Feed intake and Nutrient utilization by Yankasa sheep ………………………………….. 48
3.7 Animals and their management ………………………………………………………….. 49
3.8 Growth study and Data collection………………………………………………………….. 49
3.9 Chemical analysis ………………………………………………………………………… 49
3.10 Digestibility study …………………………………………………………………. 50
3.11 Statistical analysis ………………………………………………………………… 50
3.12 Cost benefit analysis …………………………………………………………………. 52
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results and Discussion ………………………….………………………………………. 53
4.1 Shika Climate …………….………………………………………………………………… 53
4.2 Soil characteristics of the study area ………………………………………………………. 54
4.3 Agronomic studies …………………………………………………………………………. 55
4.3.1 Establishment of Brachiaria ruziziensis grass ……………………………………………. 55
xi
4.3.2 Yield components of Brachiaria ruziziensis grass ………….…………. ……………….. 56
4.4 Regression analysis for various parameters measured ……………………………………….58
4.5 Feed intake and Nutrient utilization studies ………………………………………………… 59
4.5.1 Daily ration of feed fed to Yankasa sheep ……………………………………………….. 59
4.5.2 Nutrient composition of the basal diet and protein supplements …………………………. 60
4.5.3 Nutrient and body intake from the experimental diets …………………………………… 61
4.5.4 Digestibility studies in Yankasa sheep fed B. ruziziensis with protein supplements …….. 64
4.5.5 Performance of Yankasa sheep on B. ruziziensis with protein supplements …………….. 66
4.6 Economic analysis of B. ruziziensis with protein supplements fed to Yankasa sheep
…………………………………………………………………………………………… 67
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Summary and Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….. 70
5.1 Recommendation …………………………………………………………………………… 71
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………… 72
xii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Ruminant animals play an important role in the farming systems of most countries of the world,
this includes: the production of milk, meat, draught power, manure as well as hides and skins.
Natural grazing land constitute the major feed resources, providing more than 90% of animal
feed requirement, either in the form of grazing resources or conserved forages (Tolera and
Abebe, 2007).
Brachiaria is a species of grass originating from the savannas of the Eastern part of Africa. The
grass species is widely used as livestock feed. Brachiaria species are either annual or perennial
grasses, with most of the species lacking rhizomes. The inflorescence has panicle branches
composed of racemes and the entire plant usually do not grow higher than 1m. Brachiaria
belongs to the C4 plants which tolerate drier conditions and more light exposure than many other
plants (Watson and Dallwitz, 2008).
Brachiaria is the most important forage grass for pastures in the tropics (Singh, 2009).
Brachiaria cultivars have impacted the economy of various countries in the tropics because of
their ability to grow so well in low fertility acid soils and still able to produce highly nutritious
forage for many ruminants. In the past 25-30 years Brachiaria cultivation and export has become
a major component of sown pastures (Singh, 2009). In South America, Brazil represents the
leading user of Brachiaria forage.
Brachiaria grass has a rapid growth especially in the wet season. Its compatibility with
Stylosanthes humilis and S. hamata is highly noted and also its ease of establishment (Miles et
al., 1996).
Brachiaria ruziziensis combines well with other grasses and legumes. It combines well with
legumes such as Centrosema pubescence or Pueraria phaseoloidies. In Zaire, it has been found
to combine very well with Setaria sphacelata and Stylosanthes guianensis. In Northern
Australia, S. humilis and S. hamata can be introduced by cultivating the grass and oversowing
the legumes (Mellor et al., 1973).
One of the major constraints of small ruminant production in Nigeria is nutrition, in which
feeding constitutes about 85% of total cost of production (Alawa and Umunna, 1993). Therefore,
feeding strategies are needed in order to increase animal performance using tropical grasses
(Eugene et al., 2010). Similarly, ruminants in the tropical and sub-tropical countries are likely to
depend almost entirely on pasture and agricultural by-products of relatively poor nutritional
status. Improvement in ruminant production will therefore require increased effort in
investigating the different possible ways and means of upgrading poor roughages through
increasing their digestibility and voluntary intake (Fadel, 2004).
Cotton is an important cash crop grown mainly in the northern part of Nigeria. The processing of
cotton results in a number of by-products that are valuable feed ingredients for livestock, such as
whole cottonseed, delinted cottonseed and cottonseed meal or cake. Cottonseed meal has long
been a popular and economic protein concentrate for animal feeding. The realities of least cost
ration formulation and simple economic incentive have been the prime reason that this coproduct
of the cottonseed oil extraction industry has found its way into feeds for many classes of
animals. Cotton Seed Cake has some anti-nutritional and natural limiting factors that must be
considered for safe use. Chief among these factors are protein level and quality, fibre level,
trypsin inhibitor and the gossypol content (NCPA, 1990). These anti-nutritional factors readily
undergo physical and chemical change when heated and have been found to be destroyed during
processing. The complex processes of rumination and the microbial population of the rumen will
efficiently handle any residue from such anti-nutritional factors. This could explain why the feed
ingredient did not have negative influence on the performance of animals on Cotton Seed Cake
(Oladotun et al., 2003).
Palm Kernel Cake (PKC) or Palm Kernel Meal (PKM) on the other hand is the main by-product
of the palm oil industry and Nigeria is a major producer of palm oil. Large quantities of the meal
are therefore produced and about 75% of our PKM was until recently, being exported abroad.
However, since the efforts of the Federal Government to make Nigeria self sufficient
agriculturally and on account of the embargo on feed stuffs exportation, PKM is increasingly
available from the large commercial oil millers and the small and local crushers (Umunna et al.,
1980).
Although PKC supplies both protein and energy, the by-product or commodity is taken as a
source of protein. PKC was ranked a little higher than Copra cake but lower than fish meal and
groundnut cake especially in its protein value (Devendra, 1977). PKC is a medium grade protein
feed and with its high fibre content it is often considered as suitable for feeding of ruminants. Its
protein is highly degradable in ruminant animals (Carvalho et al., 2005). The nutritive value of
PKC varies considerably based on source and methodology of oil removal (Hindle et al., 1995).
Earlier studies showed that cattle and buffaloes fed PKC as supplement or basal diets generally
results in improved growth performance (Jelan et al., 1991). Collingwood (1958) reported
increased butterfat production when PKM was fed to dairy cattle. Babatunde et al., (1975) on the
other hand reported poorer feed efficiency, reduced growth rate and feed intake for pigs fed
PKM as the major protein source and concluded that it should not be used as the sole protein
concentrate in pig diets.
Brewers’ Dried Grain is a major by-product of brewing which in Nigeria is used as manure or
disposed as waste. The dry product, Brewer Dry Grain (BDG) has been tested in monogastric
feeds. Babatunde et al., (1975) showed that pigs could tolerate up to 15% of BDG in the diet.
Preston et al. (1973) evaluated the energy value of BDG (78% TDN) for cattle and obtained a net
energy value comparable to that of maize (80% TDN).
Since Cotton Seed Cake, Brewer’s Dried Grain and Palm Kernel Cake are readily available and
cheaper than other conventional protein sources such as Groundnut cake, Soya bean Cake or
Meal, fish meal e.t.c, it was desirable to evaluate these products as major protein sources in the
diets of ruminants (Umunna et al., 1980).
1.1 JUSTIFICATION
Factors that hinder livestock production in Nigeria are many and critical. Among these are the
continuous rise in prices and scarcity of some of the conventional protein sources. There is also a
great demand for such protein sources as feed for monogastric animals and there is therefore an
urgent need to find alternative sources of protein that are cheap and also of low nutritive value
for monogastric animals or man. Cotton Seed Cake, Brewer’s Dried Grain (BDG) and Palm
Kernel Meal (PKM) fall into this class. Cotton Seed Cake/meal is a good protein source (25-45%
crude protein) and also a good source of energy (NRC, 1998).
There is a clear need for alternative means of supplementing the year round forage requirements
of livestock that will ensure better performance and positive economic gain through high
carrying capacity (Meek et al., 2004). Provision of supplementary feed to animals on natural
pastures is one of the strategies farmers can use to alleviate the problem of poor forage quality.
When provided with protein supplements, ruminants are able to increase intake of low quality
forages most especially from natural pastures and crop residues. Supplementation of poor quality
forages was reported to increase dry matter intake and performance of animals. The availability
of Cotton Seed Meal and groundnut meal in some tropical countries provide a valuable source of
N supplementation to the poor quality forages obtained in these regions (Bailey and Sim, 1998).
Cotton seeds differ in level of gossypol present in their seeds. The presence of gossypol in cotton
seeds have restricted the feeding of whole cottonseeds to non-ruminant animals. Therefore, the
feeding of Cotton Seed Cake, a by-product of cottonseed is found to be limited in the feeds of
monogastric animals (Abou-Donia, 1989).
The quality of cottonseed cake varies a lot depending on the methods of oil extraction and the
concentration of gossypol in the meal (Goetch and Owens, 1985; Ikurior and Fetuga, 1984). The
Undelinted Undecorticated Cotton Seed Cake (UUCSC) is cheaper than the major protein
sources such as groundnut cake and soyabean meal which are commonly used in the formulation
of rations for monogastric animals in Nigeria.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The objectives of this study are:
1. To determine the growth pattern, fresh and dry matter yields and chemical composition
of Brachiaria ruziziensis.
2. To determine the dry matter intake and growth performance and nutrient digestibility of
Yankasa sheep fed different supplements of protein feed and basal ration of B.
ruziziensis.
3. To evaluate the appropriate basal and supplement feed combinations for Yankasa sheep
in order to improve small ruminant production in Nigeria.
4. To estimate the cost benefit of utilizing protein supplements and B. ruziziensis in the
feeds of Yankasa sheep.
IF YOU CAN'T FIND YOUR TOPIC, CLICK HERE TO HIRE A WRITER»
