ABSTRACT
Forty-eight (48) Yankasa rams with average weight 21.67±1.6kg were used to study the effects of ensiling eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) forage on nutrient digestibility, intake, anti-nutritional factors, mineral content, nitrogen balance and haematological parameters in rams. The rams were randomly assigned to eight treatments, with six rams per treatment in a completely randomized design. The forage consisted of Digitaria smutsii hay and concentrate which was fed at 3 and 2 % of body weight (BWT), respectively. A metabolism trial was conducted to investigate the effect of the forage on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance. The results indicated that feeding the ensiled eggplant forage had significant (P<0.05) effects on nutrient digestibility, dry matter intake (DMI) (62.65±2.67) and crude protein (CP) (69.98 ±2.28). The nitrogen balance in ensiled eggplant forage had significant (P<0.05) effects on all parameters measured (N intake 40.88 to 47.96 ± 3.77gm, retention13.01 to 28.66 ±3.00) The forage had the best result in eggplant plus urea treatment in dry matter intake (DMI) 875.5 g/d which translated into higher (P>0.05) weight gain of 1.40kg and average weight gain (ADWG) of 75.00 g/d. The anti nutritional factors were higher in oxalate and Saponins (22.88 to 28.60 and 14.17 to 24.43). Bleeding period had no effect (P>0.05) in all blood metabolites expect blood urea nitrogen and creatinine (P<0.05). The blood haematocrit (plasma) had significant (P<0.05) effects in all parameters. The mineral content was higher in calcium and potassium (1.68 to 2.67 and 2.54 to 3.44). The pH ranged from 3.81 to 4.25 which indicated good silage. The studies showed that ensiled eggplant forage had effect on nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance and the blood haematocrit (plasma) in Yankasa rams. Therefore eggplant forage as unconventional feed can be used to feed Yankasa rams during critical period of feed scarcity without any adverse effects.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title………………………………………………………………………………………………Page
Title page …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… i
Declaration………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ii
Certification ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii
Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iv
Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….v
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… vi
Table of content ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. vii
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… xii
List of Plates …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… xiii
Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………xiv
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………………1
1.1 Justification ………………………………………………………………………………………………………3
1.2 Objectives ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3
1.3 Hypothesis ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIW …………………………………………………………………………………..5
2.1 Importance of Small Ruminants ……………………………………………………………………………5
2.2 Distribution of Small Ruminants in Africa ……………………………………………………………..6
2.3 Population and Distribution of Small Ruminants in Nigeria ………………………………………6
2.4 Importance of Small Ruminants in Nigeria …………………………………………………………….7
2.5 Breeds of Sheep …………………………………………………………………………………………………7
2.5.1 Balami ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..7
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2.5.2 Uda………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8
2.5.3 Yankasa ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………8
2.5.4 West African Dwarf Sheep ………………………………………………………………………………….8
2.6 Small Ruminants Management and Production System …………………………………………….9
2.6.1 Extensive System ………………………………………………………………………………………………9
2.6.2 Intensive System………………………………………………………………………………………………..9
2.6.3 Semi intensive System ……………………………………………………………………………………… 10
2.6.4 The Improved Production System ………………………………………………………………………. 10
2.7 Forage Feed Resources of Ruminant Animals ………………………………………………………. 10
2.7.1 Natural grasses ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11
2.7.2 Digitaria smutsii stent (Woolly finger grass) ……………………………………………………….. 12
2.7.3 Crop residues ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
2.7.3.1 Cereal crop residue …………………………………………………………………………………………. 13
2.7.3.2 Legume crop residues ……………………………………………………………………………………… 14
2.7.3.4 Agro-industrial by-products ……………………………………………………………………………… 15
2.7.4 Browse plants …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 15
2.7.5 Importance of browse plants to ruminants ……………………………………………………………. 16
2.8 Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) ……………………………………………………………………… 17
2.8.1 Varieties of eggplant fruits ………………………………………………………………………………… 17
2.8.2 Importance of eggplants in animal nutrition …………………………………………………………. 18
2.8.3 Effect of eggplant leaves in animal nutrition nt accepted ………………………………………… 19
2.9 Anti- Nutritional Factors in Plants ……………………………………………………………………… 19
2.9.1 Tannins………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20
2.9.2 Phytate ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
2.9.3 Oxalate ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
2.9.4 Saponins ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 22
2.9.5 Alkaloid ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 22
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2.9.6 Cyanide …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 23
2.10 Methods of Reducing Anti-nutritional Factors in Eggplants Leaves …………………………. 24
2.12 Sheep Nutritional Requirements ………………………………………………………………………… 25
2.12.1 Energy Requirement of Sheep …………………………………………………………………………… 25
2.12.2 Protein Requirement of Sheep …………………………………………………………………………… 26
2.12.3 Mineral requirement of sheep ……………………………………………………………………………. 27
2.12.3.1 Functions of minerals …………………………………………………………………………………….. 27
2.12.4 Vitamins requirement of sheep ………………………………………………………………………….. 27
2.12.5 Water requirement of sheep ………………………………………………………………………………. 28
2.12.6 Effect of temperature on sheep production …………………………………………………………… 29
2.12.6.1 Animal diets and water intake ………………………………………………………………………….. 29
2.12.6.2 Water availability during feeding ……………………………………………………………………… 30
2.12.7 Feed intake in ruminant ……………………………………………………………………………………. 30
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ……………………………………………………………………… 31
3.1 Experimental Site ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 31
3.2 Feed Preparation ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 31
3.3 Silage Making ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 32
3.4 Steps and Methods of Ensiling Crop Residues ……………………………………………………… 32
3.4.1 Characteristics of good and high quality silage …………………………………………………….. 33
3.4.1 Preference and Feeding Trials ……………………………………………………………………………. 34
3.4.2 Preference trial ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 34
3.3.2 Feeding trial …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
3.4 Digestibility study …………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
3.5 Chemical analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 35
3.6 Statistical analysis …………………………………………………………………………………………… 36
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 37
4.1 Physical Properties of Dried Ensiled Eggplants Forage ………………………………………….. 37
4.2 Proximate Analysis of Dried Ensiled Eggplants Forage and Concentrate ………………….. 37
4.3 Anti-nutritional Factors in Ensiled Eggplants Forage …………………………………………….. 41
4.4 Mineral content in treated Ensiled Eggplants forage ………………………………………………. 43
4.5 Preference Study of Yankasa Ram fed Treated Ensiled Eggplants …………………………. 44
4.6 Effect of treated Ensiled Eggplants forage on the Performance of Yankasa Rams ………. 46
4.7: Feed intake and weight change of Yankasa rams during Digestibility Study ……………… 48
4.8 Nutrient Digestibility of Treated Ensiled Eggplants Forage, D.smutsii and Concentrate Taken by Yankasa rams ……………………………………………………………………………………. 50
4.9 Nitrogen Balance of Treated Ensiled Eggplants, Concentrate and D. smutsii. …………….. 52
4.10 Blood Metabolite of Rams Fed Ensiled Eggplants Forage and Concentrate Feed ……… 54
4.12 Bleeding Periods of Blood Metabolite of Rams Fed Ensiled Eggplants Forage and Concentrate Feed …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 54
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
5.1 Chemical Composition of Feed Ingredients and Concentrate ………………………………….. 56
5.2 The Mineral Content of the Treated Ensiled Eggplants Forage Fed to Yankasa Rams …. 57
5.3 The Anti-nutritional Content of the Treated Ensiled Eggplants Forage ……………………… 57
5.4 Intake of Treated Ensiled Eggplants Forage and Concentrate Fed to Yankasa Rams …… 58
5.5 Feed intake of Yankasa rams treated in Ensiled Eggplants forage and concentrate. …….. 59
5.6 Nutrient Digestibility of Yankasa ram fed Treated Ensiled Eggplants ………………………. 59
5.7 Nitrogen Balance of Treated Ensiled Eggplants Forage………………………………………….. 60
5.7 Blood (Plasma)Metabolites of Rams Fed the Ensiled Eggplants Forag and Concentrate61
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CHAPTER SIX ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ……………………………… 62
6.1 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
6.2 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
6.3 Recommendation …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 63
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Eggplants are widely grown in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa, especially, in the urban and rural areas, and they constitute the most macro and micro nutrients which can be purchased in affordable price. The name “Egg plant” was derived from the shape of the fruits of some varieties which are white and shaped like chicken eggs (Chen et al., 2001). The plant (Solanum spp) is a vegetable with increasing popularity in the world (Pessarakli and Dris, 2003), and it originated from Tropical Africa (Norman, 1992). It is an economic flowering plant belonging to the family Solanaceae, of which members of about 1,400 species are found in the temperate and tropical regions of the world. The fruits of the plant come in a wide array of shapes and colours, some are yellow, green, white, yellow stripes and green stripes fruits are widely grown in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Chen et al, (2001).
Nutritionally, the fruits of an egg plant contain water (92.5%), protein (1%), fat (0.3%), and carbohydrates (6%) Sabo and Dia (2009). They contain between 30 and 50% of iron (Fe), fiber, potassium (K), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) and vitamins; thiamin (vitamin B1), B6, folate, magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and niacin. Egg plant also contains phyto-nutrients such as nasunin and chlorogenic acid (Sabo and Dia, 2009). It is a very good source of dietary fiber. Eggplant are medically processed and used in the preparation of condiments and products used in treating different diseases and health problems (Burkill, 1985). A meal of eggplants is proven to be of benefits to patients suffering from raised intraocular pressure (glaucoma) and convergence insufficiency, as well as in heart diseases and Arteriosccerosis (Harish et al., 2008). The plant can be regarded as a brain food because it houses the anthocyanin phytonutrient found in its skin, Nasunin, a potent antioxidant and free radical scavenger that has been shown to protect cell membranes from damage Harish et al., (2008).
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However, the presence of toxic factors or anti-nutritional components in eggplants forge has been one major challenge in realising the full benefits of the nutritional value of eggplant forage (Liener, 1969; Nwokolo and Bragg, 1977; Lewis and Frenwick, 1987). Although the presence of these anti nutritional factors is always in large quantities, they have been established to play significant roles in the nutritional quality of food. The anti nutritional factors (ANFs) interfere with metabolic processes and availability of nutrients, which may also cause toxicity during period of scarcity (Kumar, 1992). The ANFs in this vegetable can be tannins phytate, oxalate, saponins, alkaloid and cyanides. Tannins have the ability to precipitate certain proteins. They combine with digestive enzymes thereby making them unavailable for digestion (Abara, 2003; Benita and Khetarpau, 1997). Phytic acid (inositol hexa phosphate) is an organic acid found in plant materials (Heldt, 1997). Phytic acid combines with some essential elements such as iron, calcium, zinc and phosphorus to form insoluble salts called phytate, which are not absorbed by the body thereby reducing the availability of these elements (Erdman, 1979). Oxalate binds to calcium to form complexes (calcium oxalate crystals). These oxalate crystals prevent the absorption and utilization of calcium by the body causing diseases such as rickets and osteomalacia (Ladeji et al., 2004). The calcium crystal may also precipitate around the renal tubules thereby causing renal stones. The formation of oxalate crystal is said to take place in the digestive tract (Thompson and Yoon, 1984). Saponins are naturally oily glycosides occurring in wide variety of plants. When eaten, they are practically non poisonous to warm blooded animals, but they are dangerous when injected into the blood stream and quickly haemolyse red blood cells (Applebaum et al., 1969).
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Alkaloids cause gastrointestinal and neurological disorders (Aletor, 1993). The glycoalkaloids in Solanum melongena L (Saito et al., 1990) are haemolytically active and toxic to fungi and humans. Some of the toxicological manifestations of potato glycoalkaloids involve gastrointestinal upsets and neurological disorders, especially in doses in excess of 20 mg/100 g sample (Aletor, 1993). The cyanide ions inhibit several enzyme systems; depress growth through interference with certain essential amino acids and utilization of associated nutrients. They also cause acute toxicity, neuropathy and death (Osuntokun, 1972). Cyanogenic glycoside on hydrolysis yields toxic hydrocyanic acid (HCN). Despite the fact that eggplant forages are not consumed by ruminant animals due to high level of anti nutritional factors, there is lack of information on the anti-nutritional composition of this forage which makes it unacceptable to ruminant animals.
1.1 Justification
There are many types of vegetable forages not consumed by man and which have very limited use in feeding animals because of their high content of anti nutritional factors and are wasted by farmers. These forages which are presently wasted and burned can become useful as feed for sheep and other ruminants if the ant nutritional factors are reduced to tolerable limits. Therefore the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of treated ensiled eggplant forage on performance of Yankasa rams. 1.2 Objectives The objectives of this study were to;
1. Evaluate selection preference of different ensiled eggplant forage
2. Determine the effects of feeding ensiled eggplant forage on digestibility and
blood metabolite in Yankasa rams.
3. Determine the effect of ensiled eggplant forage with different additives.
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1.3 Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (Ho): Ensiled eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) treated with some additives has no significant effect on digestibility and blood metabolites of Yankasa rams. Alternate Hypothesis (Ho): Ensiled eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) treated with some additives has significant effect on digestibility and blood metabolites of Yankasa rams.
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