ABSTRACT
Egg-type chickens were fed graded levels of palm kernel cake (PKC) during the chick
and grower phases. The subsequent performance of these birds during the laying phase
was investigated. In the first trial, 390 day old ShikaBrowm® chicks were fed diets
containing 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% palm kernel cake. All diets were formulated to be
isonitrogenous (20%). The birds were divided into five (5) groups of seventy eight birds
(78) after balancing for live weight. The 78 birds were further divided into three (3)
replications of twenty six (26) birds each in a completely randomized experimental
design. There were 3 replications per treatment. At the end of the 8 – week trial period,
weight gain and feed intake were not significantly different (P> 0.05) from those of the
control. Feed cost per gram gain was affected (P < 0.05) by the level of PKC in the diets.
The least feed cost per gram gain was observed on diets containing 20% PKC level,
closely followed by 10 and 30% PKC levels. In the second trial, 225 ShikaBrown®, 9
weeks old growers were fed diets containing 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% PKC. All diets were
formulated to be isonitrogenous (16%). The birds were divided into five (5) groups
(treatments) of three (3) replicates is a completely randomized experimental design. Each
pen had 15 birds. At the end of the 11- week trial period the inclusion of PKC in the
grower pullet diets significantly affected (P < 0.05) the live weight gain of the pullets as
the level of PKC was increased in the diets. It however, did not affect the feed intake (P >
0.05). Feed conversion ratio and feed cost per gram gain were affected by the level of
PKC in the diets. In the third trial, 180 ShikaBrown® 20 weeks old layers, were fed a
common layer diet which had no PKC and performance characteristics were measured.
At the end of the trial, it was observed that PKC fed previously to grower pullets did not
significantly affect the subsequent average feed intake (P > 0.05), feed to gain ratio, henday
egg production, hen-housed egg production, weight at first egg and age at 5% egg
production. Age at 1st egg and age at 50% egg production were significantly affected by
the previous feeding of PKC during the chick and grower phases. It is concluded that up
to 20-30% PKC can be used in the diet of pullet chicks and growers without any
detrimental effect on growth rate and feed intake of the birds. Palm kernel cake can be a
valuable feedstuff in the diets of chicks and growers and does not have any detrimental
effect on the subsequent egg production of laying birds.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page – – – – – – – – i
Declaration – – – – – – – ii
Certification – – – – – – – – iii
Dedication – – – – – – – – iv
Acknowledgement – – – – – – – v
Abstract – – – – – – – – vi
Table of Content – – – – – – – vii
List of Tables – – – – – – – – ix
Abbreviations – – – – – – – – x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction – – – – – – – 1
1.1 Objectives – – – – – – – 4
1.2 Null hypothesis – – – – – – – 4
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review – – – – – – 5
2.1 Production and Utilization – – – – – 5
2.2 Nutritive Value of Palm Kernel Cake – – – 5
2.2.1 Dry Matter Content of Palm Kernel Cake – – 8
2.2.2 Protein Content of Palm Kernel Cake – – – 8
2.2.3 Amino Acid Profile Content of Palm Kernel Cake – 8
2.2.4 Crude Fibre Content of Palm Kernel Cake – – 9
2.2.5 Ether Extract Content of Palm Kernel Cake – – 10
2.2.6 Ash Content of Palm Kernel Cake – – – 10
2.2.7 Nitrogen-Free Extract content of palm kernel cake – – 11
2.2.8 Gross Energy Value of Palm Kernel Cake – – 11
2.3 Digestibility of Nutrients in Palm Kernel Cake- – – 12
2.4 Utilization of Palm Kernel Cake by Poultry- – – – 15
2.5 Effect of Fibre in Poultry Diets – – – – 18
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Methods – – – – – 21
viii
3.1 Experimental Site – – – – – – 21
3.2 Animal and their Management – – – – – 21
3.2.1 Experiment I (Chick Phase 0 – 8 weeks) – – 21
3.2.2 Experiment II (Grower Phase 9 – 20 weeks) – – 22
3.2.3 Experiment III (Effect of grower phase on
subsequent egg production Phase 20 – 40 weeks) – 22
3.3 Proximate Analysis – – – – – – 23
3.4 Statistical Analysis – – – – – – 23
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results and Discussion – – – – – 28
4.1 Experiment I (Chick Phase 0 -8 weeks) – – – 28
4.2 Experiment II (Grower Phase 9 – 20 weeks) – – – 32
4.3 Experiment III (Effect of grower phase
on subsequent egg production Phase 20 – 40 weeks) – – 35
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation – – – 38
5.1 Summary – – – – – – – 38
5.2 Conclusion – – – – – – – 39
5.3 Recommendation – – – – – – 39
References – – – – – – – 41
Appendix – – – – – – – 49
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Tables Pages
1. Proximate Composition of Palm Kernel Cake (PKC) by Various Authors 7
2. Amino Acid profile of Palm Kernel Cake (PKC),
Groundnut Cake (GNC) and Soyabean Meal (SMB), %- – – – – 9
3. Percentage Composition of Experimental Diets for Chicks (0-8 weeks) – 24
4. Percentage Composition of Experimental Diets for Grower (9-20 weeks)- 25
5. Percentage Composition of Diet Fed During Subsequent
Egg Production Phase (20-40 weeks) – – – – – 26
6. Proximate Composition of the Major Ingredients
Used in Formulation of the Diets (% DM Basis) – – – – 27
7. Performance of Chicks Fed Graded Levels of PKC (0-8 weeks)- – 31
8. Performance of Growers Fed Graded Levels of PKC (9-20 weeks) – 34
9. Subsequent Performance of Layers Previously Fed
Graded Levels of PKC during the growing phase – – – 37
x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Animal production industry is geared towards converting cheap and available feedstuffs
into a more balanced animal protein. A major constraint of the livestock industry in
Nigeria is inadequate and poor quality feed. Feed alone accounts for over 75-80% of the
total cost of production (Oluyemi and Roberts, 2000; Agbede and Aletor, 2003). Feed
insufficiency is due to stiff competition for feedstuffs between human, industry and
livestock, particularly for the fast growing and prolific monogastric species (Esonu, 1999;
Tewe and Bokanga, 2001; Amaefule et al., 2004 and Iyayi and Davies, 2005).
Conventional sources of protein and energy such as groundnut cake, maize and sorghum
are directly utilized by man and have become increasingly expensive. The over
dependence on conventional protein and energy concentrates for feeding livestock is
currently threatening the development of the industry. This has stimulated research
efforts directed towards the use of non-conventional feedstuffs that are non-competitive,
readily available and cheap (Akinmutimi, 2007). These can partly replace the traditional
energy and protein feedstuffs in animal feed formulation. Non-conventional feedstuffs
offer the best alternative in our environment for the reduction of feed cost and therefore a
reduction in the cost of meat and other animal products (Dafwang et al., 2001).
Palm kernel cake (PKC) is a by-product of palm kernel oil extraction. It is one of the nonconventional
feedstuffs. Palm kernel cake is a high fibre medium protein and energy
source. It is cheaper than maize and other conventional feed sources. It is abundant in
tropical areas of the world (Rhule, 1996). It is readily available in Nigeria and is not
2
normally consumed as food by man. In Nigeria, annual production is estimated to be
about 785,000 metric tones (OSAN survey, 2003).
In Nigeria, groundnut cake (GNC) and soyabean meal (SBM) are the major plant protein
components of poultry feed. In the last few years, groundnut production among the
African countries has continued to decline and GNC became scarce and expensive
(Enwere, 1998).
Reports on the analysis of PKC showed that it contains 18.5-21.3% crude protein
(Aduku, 1993) and 9.07- 24.9% crude fibre (Onifade and Babatunde, 1998; Perez et al.,
2000). The metabolisable energy values reported for PKC ranged from 6.20MJkg-1 (Iyayi
and Davies, 2005) to 6.74MJkg-1 (McDonald et al, 1995). Palm kernel cake has been
used both as protein and energy sources in laying hens (Olorede and Longe, 2000; Perez
et al.,2000; Odunsi et al., 2002), broilers (Okon and Ogunmodede, 1996; Ezieshi and
Olomu, 2004), pigs (Jegede et al., 1994; Kim et al., 2001; Ekenyem, 2002), rabbits
(Daudu, 2007), sheep and goats (Devendra, 1978), fish (Wingkeong et al., 2002) and
cattle (Bedingar and Degefa,1990; Onwueme and Sinha, 1991; Chin, 2007). In earlier
studies, Jegede et al., (1994), Onifade and Babatunde (1998) and Hair-Bejo and Alimon
(1995) recommended limited levels for pigs, poultry and sheep base on its high fibre
content and poor availability of energy, protein, minerals and high copper content.
However, studies by Akpodiete et al., (2006) have shown that PKC could replace up, to
60% of the protein in groundnut meal in the diet of broilers, pullet chicks and growers
thereby permitting incorporation of 28-38% of PKC.
3
Boateng et al., (2008) observed that feeding PKC up to 40% to broilers, depressed body
weight gain and feed efficiency at levels beyond 30%. Yeong and Mukherjee (1983) also
observed that feeding 15 and 30% PKC to poultry without balancing the energy and other
components of the diets affected feed intake. They observed that birds on lower levels of
PKC (15%) had higher body weight gain and better feed to gain ratios than birds
receiving rations with higher level (30%) of PKC. This suggests that reduction of the
dietary energy, which accompanies PKC inclusion into poultry diets, may be a major
problem in the feeding of this by-product. Poor palatability and lowered acceptability,
attributable to the grittiness of such diets also resulted in consequent reduction in feed
intake (Duran et al., 1990 and Hair-Bejo and Alimon, 1995).
Armas and Chicco (1977) fed 0, 15, 30 and 45% levels of PKC with or without lysine
and methionine supplementation to 5-day old broiler chicks. They observed that the
average weight at 4 or 6 weeks of age was less with 45% PKC diets than with other
groups. They attributed the reduced performance of the birds as the levels of PKC
increased in the rations to the increased level of dietary fibre, which resulted in depressed
digestibility of other nutrients in the diets. It was further observed that the abdominal fat
decreased significantly as the level of PKC in the diets of broiler chicks increased
(Odunsi et al., 2002).
Palm kernel cake is less competitive. It is cheaper than GNC and soyabean meal. It has
been worked on by many researchers and is known to have good nutrient profile. As a
result, incorporating it in the diet of egg-type pullets will bring down the cost of feed
which presently accounts for 60-70% of cost of production.
4
There is therefore the need for more studies on the possibility of using this cheap and
more readily available protein source in diets of egg-type pullets.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this study are:-
1. to evaluate the growth performance of egg-type pullets fed palm kernel cake.
2. to determine the level at which PKC can be incorporated into the diets of chicks
and growers.
3. to evaluate the subsequent laying performance of birds previously fed PKC based
diets during the growing phase.
4. to investigate the cost effectiveness of using PKC in diets of chicks and growers.
1.2 NULL HYPOTHESIS
1. Growth performance of egg-type pullets will be affected when fed graded
levels of PKC.
2. Palm kernel cake cannot be incorporated at any level into the diets of
chicks and growers.
3. Subsequent laying performance of birds fed graded levels of PKC during
the growing phase will be affected.
4. No cost benefit is derived when PKC is incorporated in the diets of eggtype
chicken.
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