ABSTRACT
Two studies were conducted using a total of 96 mixed breed rabbits aged between 5-7 weeks with an average weight of 789.71g to determine the effect of forage type, forage level, palm oil supplementation and sex on performance, carcass characteristics, serum progesterone and testosterone profile of weaner rabbits. The rabbits were randomly allotted to the treatment groups in a Completely Randomized Design in a factorial arrangement. The factors considered were forage type (groundnut, lablab), palm oil supplementation (without, with), forage level (20, 40) and sex (male, female). Water and feed were supplied ad libitum. Each study lasted for 98 days. The results showed that rabbits fed 40% forage had a significantly higher feed intake than rabbits fed 20% forage. Total weight gain of rabbits fed 20% forage were significantly higher (P<0.05) than those fed 40% forage. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the daily feed cost, total feed cost, feed cost per kg gain by rabbits fed 20% and 40% forage levels. Palm oil supplementation, forage type and sex had no significant effect (P>0.05) on the performance of the rabbits. There were interactions between forage level and palm oil supplementation, forage level and forage type, sex and forage level and palm oil supplementation and sex on the performance of rabbits. Carcass analysis showed that rabbits fed 40% forage had a significantly higher (P<0.05) carcass weight than those fed 20% forage. Similarly rabbits fed palm oil had significantly higher (P<0.05) weight than those without palm oil. The hormone profile of rabbits indicated an increase in the serum concentrations of progesterone and testosterone level of rabbits with age. Positive interaction effects were observed between forage level and palm oil, forage level and age, forage level and forage type, forage type and palm oil, forage type and age and palm oil and age on progesterone and testosterone profiles of rabbits. Palm oil supplementation did not
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE………………………………………………………………………….i
DECLARATION …………………………………………………………………………………………. ii
CERTIFICATION ………………………………………………………………………………………. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……………………………………………………………………………. iv
DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………………………………… vi
ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………………………… vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………………………………… ix
LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………………………………. xiv
ABBREVIATIONS ……………………………………………………………………………………. xv
CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.1 Justification ……………………………………………………………………………………. 3
1.2 Objectives of this Study ……………………………………………………………………. 3
CHAPTER TWO …………………………………………………………………………………………. 5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………………………………………………. 5
2.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF RABBITS ………………………………………………………. 5
2.2 BREEDS OF RABBITS …………………………………………………………………… 5
2.3 IMPORTANCE OF RABBIT PRODUCTION …………………………………….. 6
2.4 COMPOSITION OF RABBIT MEAT ………………………………………………… 7
2.5 PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS ………………………………………………. 9
2.6 GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF RABBITS……………………………………….. 9
2.7 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF RABBIT ………………………………………… 10
2.7.1 Stomach ………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
2.7.2 Small Intestine ………………………………………………………………………………. 12
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2.7.3 Hindgut ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
2.7.4 Cecotrophy …………………………………………………………………………………… 14
2.8 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF RABBITS ………………………………….. 15
2.8.1 Crude Protein ……………………………………………………………………………….. 15
2.8.2 Energy …………………………………………………………………………………………. 17
2.8.3 Vitamins ………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
2.9 FORAGES …………………………………………………………………………………… 18
2.9.1 Utilization of forages by rabbits ……………………………………………………….. 19
2.10 LABLAB PURPUREUS PLANT …………………………………………………….. 21
2.10.1 Protein and Fibre Composition of Lablab Purpureus plant……………………. 23
2.10.2 Utilization of Lablab by Livestock ……………………………………………………. 23
2.11 GROUNDNUT HAULMS ……………………………………………………………… 24
2.11.1 Groundnut Haulms in feeding Livestock ……………………………………………. 25
2.12 CONCENTRATE UTILIZATION BY RABBITS ………………………………. 26
2.13 CONCENTRATE: FORAGE UTILIZATION ……………………………………. 26
2.14 PALM OIL …………………………………………………………………………………… 28
2.14.1 Utilization of Palm oil in Animal Feed ………………………………………………. 30
2.15 CARCASS QUALITY …………………………………………………………………… 30
2.16 HORMONES ……………………………………………………………………………….. 31
2.16.1 Steroid Hormones ………………………………………………………………………….. 32
2.16.1.1 Testosterone …………………………………………………………………………………. 33
2.16.1.2 Progesterone …………………………………………………………………………………. 34
2.16.2 Influence of Nutrition on Hormones in Animals …………………………………. 36
CHAPTER THREE ……………………………………………………………………………………. 38
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS …………………………………………………………….. 38
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3.1 Experimental Site …………………………………………………………………………… 38
3.2 Source and processing of Test Ingredients ………………………………………….. 38
3.3 Design, management of experimental animal and data collection …………… 38
3.4 Experimental Diets …………………………………………………………………………. 39
3.5 Carcass Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………. 41
3.6 Laboratory Analysis ………………………………………………………………………. 42
3.7 Hormone Analysis: ………………………………………………………………………… 42
3.7.1 Testosterone Assay Procedure …………………………………………………………. 42
3.7.2 Progesterone Assay Procedure …………………………………………………………. 44
3.8 Statistical Analysis: ……………………………………………………………………….. 45
CHAPTER FOUR ……………………………………………………………………………………… 47
4.0 RESULTS ……………………………………………………………………………………. 47
4.1 PERFORMANCE OF RABBITS …………………………………………………….. 47
4.1.1 Effect of Forage level on performance of rabbits …………………………………. 47
4.1.2 Effect of Forage type on performance of rabbits ………………………………….. 47
4.1.3 Effect of Palm oil (PO) inclusion on performance of rabbits ………………….. 49
4.1.4 Effect of Sex on performance of rabbits …………………………………………….. 49
4.1.5 Interaction effects of Forage level and Palm oil (PO) on performance of rabbits ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 51
4.1.6 Interaction effect of Forage level and Forage type on performance of rabbits ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
4.1.7 Interaction effect of Forage level and Sex on performance of rabbits ……….. 55
4.1.8 Interaction effect of Palm oil and Sex on performance of rabbit ……………… 57
4.2 CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS …………………………………………………….. 59
4.2.1 Effect of Forage type and level on carcass characteristics of rabbits …………. 59
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4.2.2 Effect of Palm oil on Carcass characteristics of rabbits …………………………… 59
4.2.3 Interaction effect of Forage type and Palm oil supplementation on carcass characteristics of rabbits ……………………………………………………………………………… 63
4.2.4 Interaction effect of Forage type and Forage level on carcass characteristics of rabbits ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 65
4.2.5 Interaction effect of Forage level and Palm oil (PO) on carcass characteristics of rabbits. …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 67
4.3 HORMONE PROFILE OF RABBITS …………………………………………………. 69
4.3.1 Effect of Age (weeks) on hormone profile of rabbits ………………………………. 69
4.3.2 Effect of forage type on hormone profile of rabbits ………………………………… 69
4.3.3 Effect of forage level on hormone profile of rabbits. ………………………………. 71
4.3.4 Effect of palm oil (PO) on hormone profile of rabbits. ……………………………. 71
4.3.5 Interaction effect of forage type and age on hormone profile of rabbits. ……… 73
4.3.6 Interaction effect of forage level and age on hormone profile of rabbits ………. 73
CHAPTER FIVE ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 76
5.0 DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………………………. 76
5.1 PERFORMANCE OF RABBITS ………………………………………………………….. 76
5.1.1 Effect of Forage level on performance of rabbits ……………………………………… 76
5.1.2 Effect of Forage type on performance of rabbits ………………………………………. 77
5.1.3 Effect of Palm oil (PO) inclusion on performance of rabbits………………………. 79
5.1.4 Effect of Sex on performance of rabbits …………………………………………………. 80
5.1.5 Interaction effects of Forage level and Palm oil (PO) on performance of rabbits ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 81
5.1.6 Interaction effect of Forage level and Forage types on performance of rabbits . 82
5.2 CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS …………………………………………………………. 83
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5.2.1 Effect of Forage type on carcass characteristics of rabbits …………………….. 83
5.2.2 Effect of Forage level on carcass characteristics of rabbits ……………………. 83
5.2.3 Effect of palm oil (PO) on carcass characteristics of rabbits ………………….. 84
5.2.4 Interaction effects of Forage type and Palm oil (PO) on carcass characteristics of rabbits ……………………………………………………………………………… 85
5.3 HORMONE PROFILES …………………………………………………………………. 85
5.3.1 Effect of Age on hormone profile of rabbits ……………………………………….. 85
5.3.2 Effect of forage type on hormone profile of rabbits ……………………………… 86
5.3.3 Effect of palm oil (PO) on hormone profile of rabbits ………………………….. 87
5.3.4 Interaction effect of age and forage types on hormone profile of rabbits …. 87
5.3.5 Interaction effect of forage level and age on hormone profile of rabbits ….. 88
CHAPTER SIX …………………………………………………………………………………………. 90
6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION …………………….. 90
6.1 Summary and Conclusion ………………………………………………………………… 90
6.2 Recommendations …………………………………………………………………………… 91
6.3 Recommendations for further studies ………………………………………………….. 91
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 92
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The state of nutrition of the Nigerian populace is grossly marked by inadequate intake of protein both in quality and quantity. Animal protein consumption is very essential for meeting protein requirement of man. The average daily protein intake per adult is still far less than the 35g per adult per day recommended by FAO (2007). This shortage has given rise to high prices of animal protein. Therefore, efforts are being directed towards exploring all reasonable options to meet the recommended level at an affordable price (Ojebiyi et al., 2008).
In order to maximize food production and meet protein requirements in Nigeria, viable options need to be explored and evaluated (Owen et al., 2008). Among such alternatives is the use of livestock species that are yet to play a major role in animal production in the country. Rabbit production is a veritable way of alleviating animal protein deficiency in Nigeria (Ajala and Balogun, 2004). The rabbit has immense potentials and good attributes which include high growth rate, high efficiency in converting forage to meat, short gestation period, high prolificacy, relatively low cost of production and high nutritional quality of rabbit meat which includes low fat, sodium and cholesterol levels. It also has a high protein level of about 20.8% and its consumption is bereft of cultural and religious biases (Biobaku and Oguntona, 1997).
Domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are ubiquitous, providing protein, fibre, research models, and companionship. Rabbits have high reproductive potentials, fast growth rate (Hassan et al., 2012), utilize low grain and high roughage diets and breed all year-round (Irlbeck, 2001). Other attributes are short gestation interval, early sexual maturity and ability to rebreed shortly after kindling (Hassan et al., 2012).
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These qualities confer on rabbits a potential to bridge the shortage of animal protein in developing countries, where grain can only be justified for human use (Irlbeck, 2001; Hassan et al., 2012).
Rabbit production is suitable because as monogastric herbivores, they do not compete directly with man for both cereal and legume grains. In spite of the various attributes of rabbits over other livestock, the cost of production is high due to the ever increasing cost of concentrate feeds. In view of this, the need to develop alternative feed resources that are cheap, readily available and with great potentials in supporting livestock growth becomes imperative (Omoikhoje et al., 2006). Consequently, researchers are diverting attention to the rabbit’s natural habit of high forage intake (Omoikhoje et al., 2006).
Forages, especially legumes, with their high protein content, have the potential of meeting the need for cheaper feed sources for rabbits (Iyeghe-Erakpotobor, 2007). However, feeding forage alone will not support adequate growth performance in rabbits. Supplementation with sources of energy is needed. Potential energy sources include roots and tubers (cassava, sweet potatoes), fruit (bananas, plantains, mangoes), rice bran, other grain processing by – products, sugar cane products (whole cane, molasses, juice) (Onifade et al., 1999) and fats such as palm oil. The main advantage of using oil in rabbit feed is its high calorie density in the absence of fibre. This creates opportunities for using forage whose energy content might be a limitation (Blas et al., 2008). Rabbits could utilize forages (Omole et al., 2007), which helps in reducing the cost of feeding compared to poultry which competes with man for cereal and legume based feed resources.
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1.1 Justification
Over the years, the rearing and production of rabbits and other livestock species have been faced with the challenges of feeding and feed availability. Most of the conventional feedstuffs are highly competed for by man, hence the need to source for cheaper but readily available feedstuffs so as to mitigate these challenges. One of such feedstuffs consumed by rabbits is forage with emphasis on groundnut haulm and lablab. These are emerging and non-conventional feedstuff for rabbits, they could serve as cheap sources of fibre and protein for farm animals but should be compounded with additional feed source like concentrate for optimal utilization by rabbits. However, there is need to study the influence these feeds have on growth performance and hormone profile of rabbits so as to be able to estimate the period at which rabbits attain puberty since nutrition plays an important role in puberty attainment.
1.2 Objectives of this Study
The broad objective of this study was to study the effect of feeding different forage and palm oil on the performance of rabbits. The specific objectives were to determine the effect of:
1. Forage type, forage level, sex and palm oil supplementation on performance of weaner rabbits.
2. Forage type, forage level and palm oil supplementation on carcass characteristics of weaner rabbits.
3. Forage type, forage level and palm oil supplementation on hormone profile and attainment of puberty in rabbits.
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Hypothesis
ï‚— Null Hypothesis (HO)
Forage type, sex and palm oil supplementation does not affect performance, carcass characteristics and hormone profile of weaner rabbits.
ï‚— Alternate Hypothesis(Ha)
Forage type, sex and palm oil supplementation affect performance, carcass characteristics and hormone profile of weaner rabbits.
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