ABSTRACT
Three experiments were conducted to evaluate growth, haematological, histopathological
and carcass characteristics of chickens fed Ginger By-product Meal (GBM) diets
supplemented with enzyme/palm oil. In experiment one, GBM was supplemented with a
multi enzyme preparation (Maxigrain©), using 270 broiler chicks allocated to six experimental
diets (0, 15 and 30% GBM; 0 and 0.01% enzyme) in a completely randomized design for eight
weeks. Birds fed 0% GBM diet performed significantly (p<0.05) better than others.
Maxigrain© enzyme did not improve performance of the birds. Serum Alkaline Phosphatase
(ALP) significantly (p<0.05) increased with enzyme inclusion. The diets had no negative effect
on most of the organs except the intestine where there was sloughing of the micro-villi
caused by GBM and enzyme. In experiment two, 306 broiler chicks were allocated to six
treatments (0, 7.5 and 15% GBM; 0 and 4% palm oil) in CRD. At the starter phase, final weight
and weight gain of birds fed 0 and 15% GBM diets were significantly (p<0.05) greater than
those fed 7.5% GBM diets. Feed to gain ratio significantly (p<0.05) increased with increase in
dietary GBM. Efficiency of feed utilization significantly (p<0.05) increased with addition of
palm oil. At the finisher phase, efficiency of feed utilization decreased (p <0.05) significantly
with increase in GBM. Palm oil had no significant (p>0.05) effect on performance. At week
eight, serum AST was significantly (p<0.05) lower in birds fed 15% GBM diet. Tissue ALT was
significantly (p<0.05) higher in birds fed 15% GBM diet. The abdominal fat content of birds
fed 0% GBM diet was significantly (p>0.05) greater than others. GBM and palm oil can be
included at 7.5% and 4% respectively for starter birds and 15% and 4% respectively for
finisher birds. Experiment three was conducted with 405 broiler chicks allocated to 9 dietary
treatments (0, 7.5 and 15% GBM; 0, 4 and 6% palm oil) in CRD. At starter phase, final weight
and weight gain for birds fed 0% was similar to 7.5 and 15% GBM diets. Feed efficiency of
8
birds fed 0 and 7.5% GBM diets were significantly (p<0.05) greater than those fed 15% GBM
diets. Final weight, weight gain and feed to gain ratio of birds fed 0 and 4% palm oil diets
were significantly (p<0.05) greater than those fed 6% palm oil diet. Inclusion of GBM and
palm oil at 7.5 and 4% respectively significantly improved performance. At week 4, the serum
total protein (TP) of birds fed 0 and 15% GBM were significantly (p<0.05) greater than that of
birds fed 7.5% GBM. Birds fed 15% GBM diets had significantly (p<0.05) lower serum ALP.
Addition of 6% palm oil significantly decreased ALP. At the finisher phase, feed to gain ratio
significantly (p<0.05) increased for birds fed 15% GBM diet. The intestinal length and
abdominal fat pad of birds fed 4 and 6% palm oil diets was significantly (p<0.05) greater than
those fed 0% palm oil diet. Haemoglobin concentration of birds fed 4% palm oil was
significantly lower than those fed 6% palm oil. The TP of birds fed 7.5% GBM was significantly
(p<0.05) greater than other birds and significantly (p<0.05) increased with palm oil inclusion.
The diets had no negative effect on most of the organs except the kidney of birds fed 7.5 and
15% GBM diet supplemented with 4% palm oil that showed congestion. Sloughing of the
intestinal micro-villi was observed in all treatments but reduced with palm oil inclusion. The
birds fed the control diet performed better than those fed GBM diets with or without
enzyme, enzyme did not improve the utilization of GBM. Birds fed 7.5% GBM and 4% palm oil
gained more weight than other birds. GBM had no negative effect on the haematological
profile of the birds and liver function enzymes hence it is not harmful. GBM decreased the
cholesterol content of the plasma of birds at the starter phase. GBM reduced abdominal fat
in the carcass. Inclusion of palm oil improved growth performance at the starter phase. Diets
of GBM with either palm oil or enzyme induced histopathological changes in the tissues of
liver, kidney and intestine associated with dysfunction of these organs.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover page i
Title page ii
Declaration iii
Certification iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgement vi
Abstract vii
Table of Contents x
List of Tables xv
List of Figures xviii
List of Plates xx
1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
2.0 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 The Ginger Plant 4
2.2 xGinger Production in Nigeria 7
2.3 Ginger and Animal feed 7
2.4 The Use of Enzymes in Poultry Diets 10
2.4.1 Importance of Enzymes in Poultry Diets 11
2.5 Non-Starch Polysaccharides (NSP) Found in Feedstuffs 16
2.6 Fat in Poultry Diets 17
2.7 Haematology and Serum Chemistry 21
2.8 Histopathology of Birds fed GBM/Palm Oil 25
10
3.0 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHOD 28
3.1 Processing of Ginger By-product Meal (GBM) 28
3.2 Experimental Site 28
3.3 Experiment 1: Effect of Enzyme and Non-Enzyme Supplementation
On the utilization of GBM in Broiler Chicken Diets
28
3.3.1 Growth Study
28
3.3.1.1 Experimental Design (Starter Phase) 28
3.3.1.2 Experimental Design (Finisher Phase) 29
3.3.1.3 Data Collection 29
3.3.2 Haematological and Serum Chemistry Study 32
3.3.3 Carcass Study 33
3.3.4 Statistical Analysis 33
3.3.5 Histopathological Study 34
3.4 Experiment 2: Effect of Palm Oil Supplementation on the Utilization
of GBM in Broiler Chicken Diets
34
3.4.1 Growth Study 34
3.4.1.1 Experimental Design (Starter Phase) 34
3.4.1.2 Experimental Design (Finisher Phase) 36
3.4.2 Statistical Analysis 36
3.5 Experiment 3: Effect of Graded Levels of Palm Oil on the Utilization
GBM in Broiler Chickens
36
3.5.1 Growth Study 36
3.5.1.1 Experimental Design (Starter Phase) 36
3.5.1.2 Experimental Design (Finisher Phase) 38
11
3.5.2 Statistical analysis 38
4.0 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 41
4.1 Proximate Composition of Ginger By-Product Meal 41
4.2 Experiment 1: Effect of Enzyme and Non-Enzyme Supplementation on
Utilization of GBM in Broiler Chickens Diets
41
4.2.1 Performance Of Broiler Chickens (Starter Phase) 41
4.2.2 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM/Enzyme on Haematological Profile of
Broiler Chickens
49
4.2.3 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Serum Chemistry of
Broiler Chickens 49
4.2.4 Performance of Broiler Chickens (Finisher Phase) 49
4.2.5 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Haematological
Parameters of Broiler Chickens
58
4.2.6 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Serum Chemistry of
Broiler Chickens
58
4.2.7 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM/Enzyme on Carcass and Organ
Characteristics of Broiler Chickens
61
4.2.8. Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Histology of Organs
of Broiler Chickens
61
4.3 Experiment 2: Effect of Palm Oil Supplementation on the Utilization
of GBM in Broiler Chicken Diets
70
4.3.1 Performance of Broiler Birds (Starter Phase) 70
4.3.2 Performance of Broiler Chickens (Finisher Phase) 76
4.3.3 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm oil on Haematological
Parameters of Broiler Chickens
80
4.3.4
Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Serum Chemistry
of Broiler Chickens
83
12
4.3.5
Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Carcass and
Organ Characteristics of Broiler Chickens
87
4.4 Experiment 3: Effect of Graded Levels of Palm Oil on the Utilization of
GBM in Broiler Chicken Diets
90
4.4.1 Performance of Broiler Chickens (Starter Phase) 90
4.4.2 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Serum Chemistry of
Broiler Chickens
95
4.4.3 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Haematological
Indices of Broiler Chickens 99
4.4.4 Performance of Broiler Chickens (Finisher Phase) 99
4.4.5 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Serum Chemistry 103
4.4.6
Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Haematological
Indices of Broiler Chickens
107
4.4.7
Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Carcass and
Organ Characteristics 107
4.4.8 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm oil on Histology of Organs
of Broiler Chickens
110
5.0 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION 119
5.1 Proximate Composition of Ginger By-Product Meal 119
5.2 Experiment 1: Effect of Enzyme and Non-Enzyme Supplementation
on the Utilization of GBM in Broiler Chicken Diets
119
5.2.1 Performance of Broiler Chickens (Starter Phase) 119
5.2.2 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Haematological
Profile
120
5.2.3 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Serum Chemistry 121
5.2.4 Performance of Broiler Chickens (Finisher Phase) 121
13
5.2.5 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Haematological
Parameters
122
5.2.6 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Serum Chemistry 122
5.2.7
Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Carcass and Organ
characteristics
123
5.2.8 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Enzyme on Histology of Organs
124
5.3 Experiment 2: Effect of Palm Oil Supplementation on the Utilization of
GBM in Broiler Chicken Diets
126
5.3.1 Performance of Broiler Birds (Starter Phase) 126
5.3.2 Performance of Broiler Birds (Finisher Phase) 126
5.3.3 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm oil on Haematological
Parameters
127
5.3.4 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Serum Chemistry 127
5.3.5 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM/ Palm Oil on Carcass
and Organ Characteristics
128
5.4 Experiment 3: Effect of Graded Levels of Palm Oil on the Utilization
Of GBM in Broiler Chicken Diets
129
5.4.1 Performance of Broiler Chickens (Starter Phase) 129
5.4.2 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Serum Chemistry 130
5.4.3 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Haematological
Indices
130
5.4.4 Performance of Broiler Chickens (Finisher Phase) 130
5.4.5 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Serum Chemistry 131
5.4.6 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Haematological
Indices
131
5.4.7 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm Oil on Carcass and Organ
Characteristics
131
14
5.4.8 Effect of Dietary Levels of GBM and Palm oil on Histology of Organs
of Broiler Chickens
132
6.0 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS.
133
6.1 Summary 133
6.2 Conclusions 135
6.3 Recommendations 136
References 137
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The importance of animal protein in the diet of man has necessitated the need to seek for
cheap and affordable alternative sources of feed ingredients in developing countries in order
to provide meat at a moderate price. Poultry production, especially broiler chicken remains
one of the veritable ways of achieving sustainable and rapid production of quality protein to
meet the increasing national protein demand (Apata and Ojo, 2000; Akinmutimi and Okwu,
2006).
The competition between man and livestock for foods such as cereals is partially responsible
for the high cost of feeds with the attendant increase in the price of animal products such as
meat, eggs and milk. This challenge has led to research into the use of non-conventional feed
ingredients in the feeding of domestic animals. The focus of research in recent times has been
the utilization of agro-industrial by-products that are not consumed by man, readily available
and cheap. This research effort has been expanded in recent times to include the evaluation of
medicinal plants because of associated low cost, availability, affordability, good antimicrobial
nature, reduced disease associated risks, lowered blood cholesterol level and diversified
functions in improving performance, growth rate, feed conversion rate and weight gain in
birds (Lewis et al., 2003).
A major challenge in the utilisation of some of these alternative sources of feed ingredients by
monogastrics has been their high fibre content which limits their utilization as these animals
poorly digest cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin which are the major components of agroindustrial
by-products (Madubuike and Obidimma, 2009). The digestibility of Non-Starch
Polysaccharides (NSP) is very low in poultry and a large amount is voided through faeces.
24
Non-Starch Polysaccharides are able to bind large amounts of water thus causing increase in
the viscosity of the fluid, which may impair the digestion of fat, protein and carbohydrate.
Further, high viscosity of digesta will increase the amount of sticky droppings (Bedford,
1996).
The addition of enzyme to the feed of monogastrics can reduce the problem of poor fibre
digestion in NSP rich feeds (Attia et al., 2003). Supplementary enzymes are added to facilitate
the breakdown of larger molecular structures of feed ingredients into smaller ones by their
specific actions and make nutrients readily available to the digestive system for better
absorption (Attia et al., 2008). An increased use of enzymes in feed is expected not only to
increase economic gain but also decrease negative environmental impact by reducing the
manure output and nutrient excretion particularly excess phosphorus, nitrogen, copper and
zinc (Attia et al., 2008). Experimental results generally indicate that enzymes added to diets
improve feed efficiency, accelerate growth and increase dressing percentage.
Ginger By-product Meal (GBM) is an agro-industrial by-product. Nigeria was rated as the
number five in world ginger production with an estimated annual output of 138,000 tonnes
(FAO 2008). Ginger by-product meal has high energy content (13 MJ/kg) comparable to that
of maize and can therefore replace maize up to 10% (Onimisi, 2004). Other authors such as
Ademola et al. (2009) fed 0.25-0.50 Kg/100Kg diet of dried ginger to broiler chickens and
reported an impaired growth but a reduction in serum cholesterol. Saeid et al. (2010) added
aqueous extract of ginger at concentration of 0.4 and 0.6% to the drinking water of broiler
chickens. It was observed that there was no significant difference in total protein and albumin
but serum cholesterol was significantly reduced in chickens administered the extract.
However there is a paucity of data on feeding trials carried out to improve the utilization of
25
GBM, its effect on blood parameters and histopathology of broiler chickens. The inclusion of
multi-enzyme preparation and palm oil are potential ways of improving the palatability,
digestibility and utilization of higher levels of GBM. This research will be of great
importance as it is aimed at the production of cheaper feed and more animal protein.
Research Hypothesis
Ho – The inclusion of enzyme and palm oil will not improve the utilization of GBM
Ha – The inclusion of enzyme and palm oil will improve the utilization of GBM
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study was initiated to:
(i) determine the growth performance of broiler chickens fed graded levels of GBM
rations supplemented with either enzyme or palm oil.
(ii) evaluate histopathology, haematology and serum chemistry of broiler chickens fed
GBM with enzyme or palm oil supplementation.
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