ABSTRACT
A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of inclusion level and feeding regime of Ficus sycomorus leaf meal on the growth performance, nutrients digestibility, nitrogen balance and rumen metabolites of Yankasa rams. A total of 36 rams weighing on the average 15.39kg were randomly assigned to four diets, containing 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% inclusion level of Ficus sycomorus, respectively. Each of the animals was fed 2% body weight of the experimental diet in three feeding regimes: daily, skip-a-day and skip-2-days in a 4×3 factorial arrangement in a completely randomized design. Total feed intake, total weight gain, average daily weight gain, faecal output, urine output; rumen fluid pH, total volatile fatty acids (TVFA) and ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N) were recorded. Results obtained showed that there was a significant (P<0.05) decrease in Dry matter intake (DMI) as the level of F. sycomorus leaf meal increased in the diets. Animals fed supplementary diet with 10% inclusion significantly (P<0.05) had higher total body weight gain (3.54kg) compared to rams given diets with 0, 5, and 15% inclusion levels. Also, animals on 10% inclusion had significantly (P<0.05) higher average daily gain (39.78g), followed by animals on 15% inclusion. Effect of feeding regime on feed intake and weight gain showed a significant (P<0.05) decline in supplement intake as the feeding regime changes from daily feeding (385.27g/day) to skip-2-days feeding (367.08g/day). Feeding the animals at different feeding frequencies resulted in weight gain. Animals on skip-a-day supplementation had a significantly (P<0.05) higher weight gain than those on a daily feeding and skip-2-days supplementation (2.82kg compared to 2.11 and 1.98kg respectively). The effect of inclusion level and feeding regime on feed intake and weight gain showed no significant (P<0.05) interaction between level of supplementation and feeding frequency. However, there was significant interaction (P<0.05) between inclusion level and feeding regime on total intake. Level of inclusion and frequency of feeding significantly (P<0.05) influenced the final weight, total weight gain and average weight gain. The effect of F. sycomorus supplementation on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance revealed that dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) and crude protein (CP) digestibility were significantly (P<0.05) affected by the inclusion level. Nitrogen (N) retention and N retention as percent intake were affected significantly (P<0.05). Percent DM, OM and CP digestibility were influenced (P<0.05) by feeding regime, with daily feeding recording higher values (67.80, 63.05 and 62.23 respectively) when compared to skip-a-day and skip-2-days. The result of comparative cost analysis showed a significant (P<0.05) decline in cost of feeding the rams as the inclusion level of F. sycomorus increased from 0% inclusion (N505.31/ram) to 15% inclusion level (N439.10/ram). Also, the cost of feed per kg gain (N/kg) of feeding the rams was significantly (P<0.05) lower in 10% inclusion level of F. sycomorus as compared to other inclusion levels. There was a significant decline in cost per kg feed as the feeding regime changes from daily feeding (N62.21/kg feed) to skip-2-days supplementation (N52.11/kg feed). Feeding frequency was observed to significantly (P<0.05) affect the cost of feeding the rams. The animals on daily supplementation had a higher cost of feeding (N 376.11/ram) than those on skip-a-day (N359.70/ram) and skip-2-days (N336.67/ram). A significant difference (P<0.05) in cost of feed per kg gain across the feeding regime was observed in this study. Skip-a-day supplementation was better in cost of feed per kg gain (N127.55/kg gain) as compared to other feeding regimes. Results of the rumen metabolites trial showed that there was a significant (P<0.05) increase in rumen fluid pH as the level of F. sycomorus inclusion increased in the diets. Animals fed supplementary diet with 10% inclusion significantly (P<0.05) had higher rumen pH (6.68). Also, animals on 10% and 15% inclusion were similar and significantly (P<0.05) higher in TVFA (14.16 and13.47mm/100ml respectively). Effect of feeding regime on TVFA showed a significant (P<0.05) decline as the feeding regime
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title i Declaration iii Certification……………………………………………………………………………… iv Dedication……………………………………………………………………………….. v Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………. vi Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….. viii Table of contents ……………………………………………………………………….. x List of table……………………………………………………………………………… xiv CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………… 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………. 1 CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………………… 6 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………….. 6 2.1 Sheep Production in Nigeria………………………………………………………………………. 6 2.2 Significance of Sheep Production………………………………………………………………… 6 2.3 Small Ruminant Production System………………………………………………………………. 8 2.4 Legumes and their Uses in Livestock Production ………………………………… 8 2.4.1 Significance of forage legumes as protein supplement …………………………. 9 2.4.2 Effect of legume supplementation of crop residue on animal performance ……. 11 2.4.2.1 Maintenance of body weight …………………………………………………… 11 2.4 2.2 Increase in dry matter intake ……………………………………………………. 11 2.4.2.3 Increase in rumen degradable protein …………………………………………… 12 2.4.2.4 Improvement in digestibility…………………………………………………….. 13 2.5 Trees Leaves and Shrubs as Dietary Supplements for Ruminants ……………………… 14 2.5.1 The Nutritive value of tree leaves and shrubs ………………………………………………. 15 2.5.2 Leguminous trees as supplements to low quality forage ………………………………… 17 2.6 Anti-nutritional factors in browse plants ……………………………………………………… 18 2.6.1 Effect of antrinutritive factors (polyphenolics) in browse trees and shrubs ……… 19
2.6.1.1 Effect of secondary plant factors ……………………………………………….. 19
2.6.2 Effect of secondary plant compounds on voluntary feed intake ……………….. 19
2.6.3 Effects of secondary plant factor on rumen microbial activity …………………. 20
2.6.4 Effect of secondary plant factors on digestibility ………………………………………… 21 2.6.5 Effect of secondary plant factors on nitrogen retention ………………………………… 22 2.6.6 Effect of secondary plant factors on rumen metabolites……………………………….. 23 2.6.7 Effect of secondary plant factors on animal performance ………………………………. 23
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2.6.8 Effects of secondary plant factors on milk production …………………………. 24
2.6.9 Effects of secondary plant factors on Wool growth ……………………………. 24
2.6.10 Effect of secondary plant factors on animal health …………………………….. 25
2.6.11 Effect of secondary plant factors on Growth …………………………………… 26
2.6.12 Effect of secondary plant factors on meat and carcass …………………………. 27
2.6.13 Effects of secondary plants factors on non-ruminants ………………………….. 28
2.6.14 Effect of other secondary plant factors. ………………………………………… 29
2.7 Methods of minimizing effects of antinutritive factors in browse trees and shrubs. 30
2.7.1 Drying and wilting ………………………………………………………………. 30
2.7.2 Use of polyethylene glycol (PEG) ………………………………………………. 31
2.7.3 Use of chemicals treatment ……………………………………………………… 34
2.7.4 Utility of management …………………………………………………………… 34
2.8 Ficus sycomorus……………………………………………………………………………………….. 35 2.8.1 Origin and distribution of F. Sycomorus ……………………………………………………… 35 2.8.2 Utilization of F. Sycomorus ………………………………………………………………………. 35 2.9 Origin and distribution of Digitaria smutsii (Woolly finger grass)…………………………. 37 2.9.1 Chemical composition of Digitaria smutsii (Woolly finger grass)……………………… 37 CHAPTER THREE …………………………………………………………………….. 39 3.0 MATRIALS AND METHODS ………………………………………………… 39 3.1 Location of the study …………………………………………………………… 39 3.2 Feed collection and processing …………………………………………………. 39 3.3 Experiment I: ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40 3.3.1 Effect of inclusion levels of fig (Ficus sycomorus) leaf meal in concentrate diets on the growth and digestibility of Yankasa rams fed finger grass (Digitaria smutsii) hay basal diet ……………………………………………………………….. 39 3.3.2 Experimental animals and management ………………………………………… 39 3.3.3 Treatments and experimental design …………………………………………………………. 40 3.3.4 Measurements …………………………………………………………………… 40 3.3.5 Digestibility and nitrogen balance ………………………………………………. 41 3.3.6 Chemical analysis …………………………………………………………….. 41 3.3.6 Statistical analysis ……………………………………………………………… 42 3.4 Experiment II: 3.4.1 Effect of inclusion levels of fig (Ficus sycomorus) leaf meal in concentrate diets on the rumen fermentation metabolites of Yankasa rams fed finger grass (Digitaria smutsii) hay basal diet ………………………………………………. 44 3.4.1 Experimental animals and management………………………………………… 44 3.4.2 Rumen liquor sampling and measurements……………………………………… 44 3.4.3 Statistical analysis ………………………………………………………………. 45 CHAPTER FOUR ……………………………………………………………………… 46 4.0 RESULTS ………………………………………………………………………. 46 4.1 EXPERIMENT I ……………………………………………………………….. 46 4.1.1 Chemical composition of experimental feeds ………………………………….. 46 4.1.2 Antinutritional factors of experimental feeds ………………………………….. 46
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4.1.3 Feed inclusion level of F. sycomorus leaf meal on intake and weight gain of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay as basal diet ………………………………… 49 4.1.4 Effect of feeding regime on feed intake and weight gain of Yankasa rams fed Supplement containing F. sycomorus leaf meal ………………………………. 51 4.1.5 The overall effect of inclusion levels and feeding regimes of F. sycomorus supplement on feed intake and weight gain of Yankasa rams fed a basal diet of D. smutsii hay ……………………………………………………………………………………… 53 4.1.6 Effect of level of F. sycomorus supplementation on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance ………………………………………………………………… 55 4.1.6.1 Nutrients digestibility …………………………………………………………… 55 4.1.6.2 Nitrogen Balance ………………………………………………………………… 55 4.1.7 Effect of feeding regime on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance ………… 58 4.1.7.1 Nutrients digestibility ……………………………………………………………. 58 4.1.7.2 Nitrogen balance …………………………………………………………………. 58 4.1.8 The overall effect of inclusion level and feeding regime on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance …………………………………………………………….. 60 4.1.9 Economic analysis of inclusion level of F. sycomorus in the supplement fed to Yankasa rams …………………………………………………………………………………………… 62 4.1.10 Cost analysis of supplementation of F. sycomorus on feeding frequency ………… 64 4.2 EXPERIMENT II ……………………………………………………………………………………. 66 4.2.1. Effect of level of F. sycomorus supplementation on mean rumen fluid variables in Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay ………………………………………………. 66 4.2.2. Effect of feeding regime on mean rumen fluid variables in Yankasa rams fed concentrate containing F. sycomorus ……………………………………………………. 68 4.2.3. Effect of sampling time on mean rumen fluid variables in Yankasa rams fed concentrate containing F. sycomorus …………………………………………………………. 70 4.2.4. Overall effect of F. sycomorus inclusion levels in supplement diets and feeding regime on rumen metabolites in Yankasa rams ……………………………………. 72 4.2.5 Effect of inclusion level of F. sycomorus leaf meal in supplement diets and sampling time on rumen variables ……………………………………………………………….. 74 4.2.5.1 Rumen pH ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 74 4.2.5.2 Total volatile fatty acid production ……………………………………………………………… 76 4.2.5.3. Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) ……………………………………………………………………… 78 4.2.6. Effect of feeding regime and sampling time on rumen variables……………………… 81 CHAPTER FIVE ……………………………………………………………………….. 86 5.0 DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………….. 86 5.1 Experiment 1…………………………………………………………………….. 86 5.1.1 Chemical composition of Digitaria hay………………………………………… 86 5.1.2 Voluntary feed intake …………………………………………………………… 86 5.1.2.1 Effect of inclusion level on voluntary intake …………………………………… 86 5.1.2.2 Effect of feeding regime on voluntary intake …………………………………… 87 5.1.2.3 The overall effect of inclusion level and feeding regime interaction on voluntary intake …………………………………………………………………. 87
5.1.3 Weight gain ……………………………………………………………………… 88
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5.1.3.1 Effect of inclusion level on weight gain of animals …………………………….. 88 5.1.3.2 Effect of feeding regime on weight gain ……………………………………….. 88 5.1.3.3 The overall effect of inclusion level and feeding regime on weight gain ………. 89 5.1.4 Nutrient digestibility ……………………………………………………………. 89 5.1.4.1 Effect of inclusion level on nutrient digestibility ………………………………. 89 5.1.4.2 Effect of feeding regime on nutrient digestibility ……………………………… 90 5.1.4.3 The overall effect of inclusion level and feeding regime on nutrient digestibility . 90 5.1.5 Nitrogen Balance ………………………………………………………………… 90 5.1.5.1 Effect of inclusion level on nitrogen balance ……………………………………. 90 5.1.5.2 Effect of feeding regime on Nitrogen balance …………………………………… 91 5.1.5.3 The effect of inclusion level x feeding regime on Nitrogen balance …………….. 91 5.1.6 Cost analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 91 5.1.6.1 Cost-benefit analysis of inclusion levels of F. sycomorus leaf meal in supplement diets fed to Yankasa rams ………………………………………………………………………….. 91 5.1.6.2 Cost-benefit analysis on Feeding regime of Yankasa rams fed supplement containing F. sycomorus leaf meal ……………………………………………………………… 92 5.2 EXPERIMENT II ……………………………………………………………….. 93 5.2.1 Effect of level of F.sycomorus leaf meal in supplement diets on mean rumen fluid variables in Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay……………………………………….. 93 5.2.2 Effect of feeding regime on mean rumen fluid variables in Yankasa rams fed concentrate containing F. sycomorus and a basal diet of D. smutsii hay ………….. 94 5.2.3 Effect of sampling time on mean rumen fluid variables in Yankasa rams fed concentrate containing F. sycomorus ………………………………………………………….. 94 5.2.4 Overall effect of inclusion level and feeding regime on rumen metabolites of Yankasa rams supplemented with F .sycomorus …………………………………………… 95 5.2.5 Effect of inclusion level of F. sycomorus supplement and sampling time of rumen variables ………………………………………………………………………………………… 95 5.2.5.1 Rumen pH ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 95 5.2.5.2 Total volatile fatty acid production ……………………………………………………………. 96 5.2.5.3 Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) ………………………………………………………………………. 96 5.2.5.4 Effect of feeding regime and sampling time on rumen variables…………………….. 97 CHAPTER SIX …………………………………………………………………………. 98 6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ….…………….. 98 6.1 Summary ………………………………………………………………………… 98 6.2 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………. 98 6.3 Recommendation ………………………………………………………………… 100 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 101
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION One of the major bottlenecks limiting productivity of livestock in Nigeria is inadequate supply and poor quality of feeds. This problem is even more aggravated in arid and semi-arid areas given the erratic and unreliable rainfall pattern. Low and erratic rainfall severely affects the growth of grasses, other forages as well as quantity of crop residues available for livestock feeding. Thus, animals in these areas survive mainly on range vegetation of low nutritive value for most part of the year. Amaning-Kwarteng(1991) reported that the crude protein (CP) content of range vegetation range between 8-12% DM at the beginning of the rainy season, and drops to 2- 4% at the peak of the dry season, this leads to prolonged period of under- nutrition and malnutrition with its attendant adverse effect on livestock productivity.
Increasing demand and subsequent high cost of conventional feed ingredients in the tropics has created the need for sustainable alternatives, particularly natural feed resources indigenous to the regions (Sodeinde et al., 2007; Wanapat 1995)). This need has over the past few decades rekindled research interest in the use of tropical
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browse plants as sources of nutrients for livestock (D‟Mello 1992; Aletor and Omodara 1994). Browses are more stable in nutrient composition than grasses. Browses constitute an abundant biomass in farmlands in the tropical environment of Northern Nigeria. They are commonly utilized by smallholder livestock farmers for feeding ruminants (Okoli et al., 2002). Orji and Isilebo (2000) had recognized the potential of leaf meals from tropical browses to yield relatively higher levels of crude protein, minerals and lower crude fibre. Trees are playing an increasingly important role in agricultural production systems in the tropics. They have beneficial effects on soil fertility (by protecting soil from erosion and supplying nutrients through nitrogen fixation and incorporation of organic matter); they provide shade for grazing animals in hot and humid areas; and they are an important alternative forage source, due to their high production of edible, highly- acceptable biomass and drought resistance (Otsyina and McKell, 1985; Preston and Murgueitio, 1987). Tree leaves have an appreciable protein content (11-26% crude protein on average), some of which have low rates of degradability in the rumen (Espinosa, 1984). These characteristics, along with those mentioned above, make them an alternative source of protein drawing research interest to their evaluation as a supplement for ruminant production systems in the tropics.
Okoli et al., (2002) had indicated that over the 5000 trees and shrubs listed as being suitable for livestock feeding in Africa, only 80 are documented for real fodder value. This probably underscores the lack of adequate information on the feed value of many of these plants and the need to scientifically evaluate their nutrient status. Kumar
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(2003), however, indicated the presence of anti nutritional factors (ANFs) such as non-protein amino acids, glycosides, phytohemagglutinins, polyphenolics, alkaloids, and oxalic acid have been implicated in limiting the utilization of browses. Also the International Livestock Centre for Africa (1988) research showed that the content of insoluble and soluble tannins in legumes is related to nitrogen digestibility. The concentration of ammonia (a key metabolite in nitrogen metabolism) in the rumen is an important factor that determines the utilization of nitrogen in the ruminant. Egan and Kellaway (1971) suggested that rumen ammonia and blood urea may serve as effective indices of nitrogen utilization. Volatile fatty acids are the main energy sources for ruminants feeding mainly on roughages. Their levels in the rumen, therefore, give an indication of the energy value of the feed. Crop residues also form major component of feed resource for ruminant livestock during the dry season. Despite the fairly large availability of these residues (about 71 million tonnes) (Alhassan et al., 1986), their utilization by animals is limited by low voluntary intake due to bulkiness, low dry matter digestibility and poor nutrient status. Crop residues are also known to be high in lignocelluloses, low in available carbohydrate and nitrogen (Sodeinde et al., 2007). Several methods of supplying energy and nitrogen to the rumen synchronously have been reported in literature (Kaswari et al., 2007; Hersom 2008). This involved supplementation with energy or protein sources and the use of index values and change in feeding frequency or pattern. Rotger et al., (2006) synchronized energy and nitrogen supply to the rumen by changing feed composition.
Synchrony achieved by energy or nitrogen supplementation resulted in a positive effect on microbial protein synthesis (MPS), (Lardy et al., 2004; Elseed, 2005).
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Hersom (2008) suggested several strategies to elicit optimal synchrony, the most frequently applied supplementation strategies are controlling the timing of feed offered, and the form of nutrients supplied; and supplement types as well as the balance of energy to protein ratio. JUSTIFICATION Excessive supply of feed results in increase in waste excreted to the environment. The possible environmental pollutants produced by livestock are nitrogen, phosphorus and other organic compounds (e.g. methane and nitrous oxide). Excretion of these components to the environment may be increased by inefficient digestion and utilization of feed metabolites. In ruminants, this inefficiency may occur in the rumen due to complicated and competitive metabolic pathways which depend on rumen microbial metabolism (Khezri et al., 2009). Therefore, better understanding and manipulation of rumen function is necessary for efficient animal production, lower nutrient losses as a result of inefficient digestion/ metabolism and reduce environmental pollution. Manipulating rumen fermentation through strategic supplementation with concentrate and forages could improve rumen efficiency by maintaining higher pH and optimum rumen ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) concentration, thus reducing methane (CH4) production and increasing microbial protein synthesis and essential volatile fatty acid (VFAs), for enhanced ruminant production in the tropics (Khampa and Wanapat, 2007). The manipulation of the animals‟ diets through the use of strategic feeding regime has not been extensively investigated.
Adequate nitrogen (N) supply to the rumen has been one of the biggest concerns in ruminant animal nutrition because conventional protein sources are expensive and
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excessive N supply in the form of Non Protein Nitrogen (NPN) has resulted in large amounts of N excreted in animal manure causing unacceptable air and water pollution (Kaswari et al., 2007). While the restriction of carbohydrate and protein supply in the rumen has been suggested as one possible solution to achieve this (Kaswari et al., 2007), controlling the timing of feed offered to ruminants has been proposed as a means of increasing ruminal MPS, improve efficiency of N usage and animal performance, and decrease urinary N excretion (Cole et al., 2008). There is need therefore, to further investigate the use of F. sycomorus in relation to quantity and frequency of offer to Yankasa rams to determine the efficiency of usage at farm level. Objectives of the study: This study was carried out to evaluate the nutritive value of Ficus sycomorus leaf meal as supplement to Digitaria smutsii fed to Yankasa rams at different levels and frequencies. The specific objectives are:
i. To determine the nutritive value and antnutritive factors of Ficus sycomorus leaf meal.
ii. To determine the effect of inclusion levels of F. sycomorus leaf meal in concentrate diets and feeding frequency on growth performance of Yankasa rams fed a basal diet of D. smutsii hay.
iii. To determine the effect of inclusion levels of F. sycomorus leaf meal in concentrate diets and feeding frequency on nutrients digestibility and nitrogen balance in Yankasa rams fed a basal diet of D. smutsii hay.
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iv. To assess the effect of inclusion levels of F. sycomorus leaf meal and feeding frequency on rumen metabolites profile and levels in Yankasa rams fed a basal diet of D. smutsii hay.
v. To evaluate the economics of production of Yankasa rams fed graded levels of F. sycomorus leaf meal in concentrate diets at different feeding frequencies.
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