ABSTRACT
Eighteen weanling pigs aged between 9-10 weeks were used to study the effect of
pigeonpea replacement of soyabean meal on the performance and attainment of puberty in
weanling pigs. The pigs were randomly assigned into three groups (A, B and C) of 6 pigs each
and housed in three different pens. The pigs in the three groups were fed for 10 weeks with the
following ingredient as sole source of dietary protein; group A soyabean meal, group B toasted
pigeonpea meal and group C untoasted pigeonpea meal. Pigs in each group were fed 2% of their
live body weight daily at 9 am and 3 pm respectively. Before commencement of the dietary
treatments (day 0), pigs in each group were weighed. Concurrently, blood samples were collected
and subsequently weekly from each animal for the determination of packed cell volume (PCV), serum
biochemistry assays for Luteunizing hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating hormone (FSH). Weekly
body weights of the pigs were determined until the end of the study. Serum total protein was determined
by Biuret method while serum albumin was determined by Bromocresol green method. The PCV was
determined by microhaematocrit method while the hormonal assay (follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
and leutinizing hormone (LH)) was determined using Enzymes linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
Cholesterol, triglyceride, low density lipoprotein (LDL) and high density lipoprotein (HDL) were
determined following standard procedures. Data generated from the study was subjected to one way
analysis of variance. Variant means were separated using the Duncan’s multiple range test. Significance
was accepted at p<0.05. There were no significant variations (p>0.05) in the mean live body weights and
PCV of all the groups throughout the study period. The mean total serum protein level of pigs in group C
was significantly (p<0.05) lower than those of groups A and B in week two while group A was
significantly (p<0.05) higher relative to group B and C in week four. There were no significant variations
(p>0.05) in the mean serum albumins among all the groups. The globulin level in group A were
significantly (p<0.05) higher than those of groups B and C pigs, while those of group B were significantly
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(p<0.05) lower than that of group C. Throughout the study period group A had significantly (p<0.05)
higher mean serum LH and FSH concentrations than those of groups B and C. The mean cholesterol
level of group C pigs was significantly (p<0.05) lower than those of groups A and B on week four while
of group B were significantly (p<0.05) higher than those of groups A and C in week five. There were no
significant variations (p>0.05) in the mean HDL levels in groups A, B and C in weeks one and two.
However, the mean HDL levels in groups A and C were significantly (p<0.05) higher than those of group
B between weeks three and four. Subsequently, at week five, the level in group A pigs rose significantly
(p<0.05) higher than those in groups B and C. Groups A and B had significantly (p<0.05) higher mean
LDL levels than those in groups C throughout the study.
The results of the study showed that growth rate and weight gain, follicular waves were similar in
all treatment groups. It was concluded from the study that pigeonpea meal can be a good replacement
diet for soyabean meal in weanling pigs and that toasting of pigeonpea has no effects on the nutritive
value of pigeonpea meal in weanling pigs.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page …………………………………………………………………………………i
Declaration ……………………………………………………………………………… ii
Certification ………………………………………………………………………………iii
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………… iv
Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………………………..v
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………….. ……vi
Table of contents ………………………………………………………………………….viii
List of figures ……………………………………………………………………. ………xii
List of tables ………………………………………………………………………………xiii
List of abbreviation ……………………………………………………………………….xiv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………1
1.1 Justification of the Study……………………………………………………………..6
1.2 Research Objectives ………………………………………………………………….7
1.3 Significance of the Study …………………………………………………………….7
1.4 Hypothesis ……………………………………………………………………………8
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………………………9
2.0 Family …………………………………………………………………………………9
2.1 Distribution ……………………………………………………………………………9
2.2 Pigeonpea production …………………………………………………………………10
2.3 Nutritive value of pigeonpea ………………………………………………………….11
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2.4 Utilization of pigeonpea ………………………………………………………………13
2.4.1 Pigeonpea and conservation agriculture …………………………………………….15
2.5 Swine industry …………………………………………………………………………16
2.6 Protein requirements for swine ………………………………………………………..17
2.7 Energy requirements for swine ………………………………………………………..18
2.8 Effect of Nutrition on reproductive performance ………………………………………19
2.9 Puberty attainment in gilt ………………………………………………………………21
2.10 Endocrinology of reproduction swine ………………………………………………..22
2.10.1 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) ……………………………………………….22
2.10.2 Luteinizing hormone (LH) ………………………………………………………….25
2.11 Meat quality ……………………………………………………………………………29
2.12 Cholesterol …………………………………………………………………………….35
2. 13 Fatty Pork ……………………………………………………………………………..36
2. 14 Cholesterolemia ……………………………………………………………………….40
2.15High density lipoprotein …………………………………………………………….41
2.16Low density lipoprotein …………………………………………………………….43
2.17 Triglycerides…………………………………………………………………………….44
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Location of study ……………………………………………………………………….. 46
3.2 Experimental animals …………………………………………………………………….46
3.3 Processing of pigeonpea seeds ……………………………………………………………46
3.4 Experimental design ………………………………………………………………………47
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3.5 Feed compounding and feeding ………………………………………………………….47
3.6 Determination of the proximate values of the various feed diets………………………….49
3.7 Determination of changes in live weight and feed efficiency …………………………….49
3.8 Hematology and serum biochemistry …………………………………………………….50
3.9 Determination of serum follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and leutinizing hormone
(LH)……………………………………………………………………………………………50
3.10 Determination of cholesterol, triglyceride, high density lipoprotein and low density
lipoprotein ………………………………………………………………………………………51
3.11 Statistical Analysis …………………………………………………………………………………………………51
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS
4.1 Changes in Live Body Weight ……………………………………………………………..52
4.2 Mean PCV ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..55
4.3 Total Serum Protein Concentration (g/dl) ………………………………………………….56
4.4 Total Serum Albumin Concentration (g/dl)…………………………………………………58
4.5 Total Serum Globulin Concentration (g/dl)…………………………………………………………………59
4.6 Luteinizing Hormone Profile (LH)………………………………………………………….60
4.7 Follicle Stimulating Hormone Profile (FSH) ……………………………………………….62
4.8 Cholesterol Level……………………………………………………………………………64
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4.9 Triglycerides Level…………………………………………………………………………..65
4.10 Mean Serum High Density Lipoprotein Level (mg/dl)…………………………………………………66
4.11 Mean Serum Low Density Lipoprotein Level (mg/dl)………………………………………………….67
5.0 CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………60
5.2 Conclusions and Recommendations …………………………………………………………73
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………… ………………………..75
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Livestock ownership currently sustains the livelihood of an estimated 675 million rural poor who
partially or fully depend on livestock for income or subsistence. (LID, 1999). These are made up
of the populations involved in the production of chevon, mutton, beef, and pork including milk,
eggs and poultry. Depending on the country and scale of production, livestock are important as a
major source of family income, or as a saving bank (Steinfeld, 1998) as well as providing
employment opportunities to both educated and uneducated members of the society. Recently,
there had been increases in the demand and consumption of animal products worldwide.
However, this growth is greater in the developing world than in the undeveloped world. This is
attributed to raising income among the third world nations, increasing urbanization and changes
in food habit. This has resulted in the productivity rise amply seen among the monogastrics
(Swine and Poultry) which in 1993 represented 63% of all meat consumed globally (FAO, 2000).
Pork is the most popular meat consumed in the world today as 44% of the world meat protein
consumption is derived from swine and swine products (FAO, 2001). Recently, there have been
some growths in the production and marketing of swine products. This has been attributed to
improvement in general income of the people and overcoming or relaxation of taboos that
hitherto constrained pork consumption.
Pig production has a great potential to contribute to high economic return. This is because of the
species special traits such as high fecundity, efficiency of feed conversion, early maturity, and
short generation interval. They are also multi-utility animals providing 40% of meat in the world
market, cooking fats and bristles (Fanstin et al.,2003). Improving pig husbandry in tropical
2
resource-poor communities has the potential to reduce risk of porcine cysticercosis as poor
management is the major source of this condition that causes high pork rejection upon slaughter.
World pig population is estimated to be about 923 million out of which 552 million are in
Asia, 72 million in North America, 194 million in Europe, 18 million in Africa. The United
Nations Agency, FAO with regard to countries estimated the population of pigs as 454 million in
China, 59 million in USA, 20 million in Vietnam, 17 million in India, 10 million in Japan, 5
million in Nigeria and 0.5 million in Tanzania (FAO, 1981).
The total pig population in Tropical Africa is estimated at 7.3 million (FAO, 1981). The
largest concentration of pigs in this area is in the coastal belt of West Africa; from Senegal to
Cameroon which accounts for almost fifty per cent of the total population. There are nine
countries in Western Africa, two in Central, and one in Eastern and four in Southern Africa with
pig population of 100,000 heads or above (FID, 1991). The distribution reflects ecological
conditions, religious inhibitions particularly Islamic -taboos and development efforts of the past
State policies (Meyn, 1978b). The same author described three basic production systems,
traditional, commercial and advanced systems. The traditional system found in smallholder
farming communities. The animals in this production system are usually indigenous unimproved
breeds that subsist mainly on waste products of the household and on field grazing. There are
practically no fixed investments with management characterized by minimal supplementary
feeding, health care (vaccination and deworming in particular) and housing. According to Meyn,
(1978b) only about 3-4 piglets are weaned per sow per year and the carcass weight hardly
exceeds 50 kg. Production is destined for home or village consumption. Pigs managed
traditionally contributes about 80% of pigs kept in East Africa (Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda),
3
75% in Zimbabwe, 70% in Botswana (Setschewaelo, 1992), 65% in Sahel countries (Chad,
Niger, Mali, Guinea Bissau, Senegal), 80% in Namibia (FAO, 1998a, b).
The second production system is the commercial production which targets market
demands. This system utilizes concentrates for feeding and also involves costs for recurrent
inputs and investments. In this system, breeds with better feed conversion rates are used and
generally these have higher performance capacity than indigenous breeds. Thus, exotic animals
with defined economic qualities are the animals of choice in this system. The commercial
systems are normally self-sustaining and usually compartmentalized into breeding and fattening
units. They can be distinguished according to the end product they specialize in, viz fat, lard or
pork.
FAO (1983) reported that there are two types of commercial production; a commercial
small-scale system characterized by improved breeds fed concentrates and having relatively
good productivity. The commercial large-scale system is however characterized by improved
breeds which are confined mainly to government/parastatal farms and institutional farms. These
are in the decline in most countries especially in Tanzania, Nigeria, South Africa, and Vietnam
and their future is bleak (FAO, 1983). In addition, mixed/integrated pig farming is also common,
whereby local feedstuffs such as cereal residues and potatoes are the main source of feeds to
pigs. In turn they provide manure for land fertility. According to FAO (1983), the integration of
animal and crop production in the tropics offers good future prospects for economic and
sustainable agriculture based on organic agriculture. The economics of the different systems are
largely determined by the prices and price differentials for the different feedstuffs and meat
qualities produced (Serres, 1973). Fat meat is in relatively higher demand in Africa than in
industrialized countries which in part explains the premium paid in Africa for pig meat over beef
4
(Serres, 1973). This is presently dwindling according to the report due to the increasing
consciousness of meat quality and its health implications.
Finally there are advanced systems within an overall stratification of production. Central
units engage in stud breeding, selection and experimentation on feeding and health care. Other
units engage exclusively in piglet production, which still requires a high level of management,
while fattening is carried out in either specialized large enterprises or in smallholdings. Such
stratification and specialization is seen as the long-term development path for pig production in
Tropical Africa but has not been implemented on a large scale yet (Serres 1973).
There is increase in demand for pork in international market due to increasing number of
consumers. This has translated into increased production activities globally (Serres, 2001).
Tewe and Egbunike (1988) opined that swine production represents the fastest means of
correcting animal protein shortage in Africa. This is because, apart from reproduction, pigs are
characterized by high efficiency in nutrient transformation into high quality protein in form of
meat (Pork). In recognition of the potential of pig as a prolific and fast growing animal as well as
a good converter of feed to meat, many Nigerians farmers have embarked upon intensive
production of pigs (Adesehiwa et al., 1998). Unfortunately, government is yet to recognize the
potential benefits of pig production and encourage the populace through pig production friendly
policies. Findings by Adesehinwa et al (1998) revealed that efforts geared towards increasing
animal protein supply at reduced cost for human consumption will involve improved pork
production. They also reported that commercial production under semi intensive system is
becoming more popular because of its favorable rate of return on investments. Pig production
appears to have the most promising potential for adequate animal protein source in the
developing world.
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Listed as constraints to swine production are diseases, stress, poor genetic quality of
breeds and nutrition (Petrus et al., 2011). They reported reductions in feed availability both as
roughages and concentrates especially during the last decade due to increased animal production
activities in many parts of the world. They also stated that efforts are being made to investigate
the potential use of non-conventional feed ingredients with moderate human utility to avoid
competition with humans and or to improve the nutritional value of low quality feed. It is
believed that utilization of non-conventional feed ingredients will reduce the cost of feed and
maximize returns from production activities (Onu and Okongwu, 2006). Conventionally, swine
diets comprise of ingredients that make for balanced ration at feeding, usually consisting of,
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals and vitamins and water. In the tropics, the protein
source in the livestock feed is usually the costliest and resource limiting. Thus, reduction in the
cost of production will involve alternative sources of protein different from the conventional
sources like soybean meal, groundnut cake, fish meal etc that are unaffordable or readily
avaliable.
Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) is a tropical plant that possesses qualities of a candidate crop
that has been scarcely used in pig feed compounding inspite of its high crude protein and energy
profiles. It is used as human food and inform of vegetable in most parts of the tropics where it is
present or grown. According to Wallis et al (1986), India is the major producer of pigeon pea,
though substantial production also takes place in Africa. It is likely that it will be increasingly
used in compounding rations fed to livestock. Pigeonpea has also been reported as component of
swine nutrition (Falvey and Visitpanich 1979). They demonstrated that its inclusion in a ration
for growing pigs made up of chopped banana stalk, rice bran, and corn improved live weight
gains. There are varieties of pigeonpea grown in different parts of the tropics with varying
6
nutrient qualities. Salunkhe et al (1985) reported that the chemical and proximate values of
pigeonpea seeds are affected by such variables as cultivar, soil type or geographical location.
The effective use of pigeonpea as livestock feed is limited by the presence of antinutritional
factors such as protease inhibitors, trypsin and chemotrypsin inhibitors (Visitpanich et
al., 1985a; Betterham et al., 1993). To improve the nutritional quality of pigeonpea meal,
reduction in anti- nutritional factors can be effected by heating (Visitpasnich et al., 1985b; Singh,
1988), boiling (Rani et al., 1996), roasting (Simoongwe, 1998), extraction (Benjakul et al.,
2000), and cooking (Aarti et al., 2001), resulting in improved protein and starch digestibility
(Rani et al., 1996).
There are many other potential feed ingredients for livestock existing in our environment.
However, these are not in popular use either because of lack of proper understanding of their
nutritional qualities and or lack of research in this direction. Pigeonpea used to be popular
within the sub humid and savannah derived and savannah belts of Nigeria in West Africa as
human food ingredient. However, its use as component of animal feed is either unknown due to
its high food value among the peoples or there has not been any study in this respect. Moreover,
production is so limited as to have a global market effect.
The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the potential use of pigeonpea meal as feed
ingredient in the diet of weanling pigs using sub humid zone cultivar of pigeonpea. This was
based on its known nutritional value, availability and high cost benefit value.
1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
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Swine diets are expensive in tropical countries due to high cost of ingredients used in their
formulation, especially the protein components such as soybean meal, fish meal or groundnut
cake. To reduce cost, pigs tend to be underfed and therefore perform sub-optimally. Pigeonpea
seed is highly proteinous and contain between 20-25% proteins (Saxena et al., 1987) and
therefore is seen as a potential source of protein in livestock feed.
Hitherto, pigeonpea has been in use in our locality solely as human food or part of it. It is
available, affordable and if the production is programmed could be made a common agricultural
produce with unlimited utility. It is believed that with its 21% crude protein and 1-8% crude
fibre contents, it could be used to replace conventional animal feed protein sources as soybean
meal, fish meal, groundnut cake or even cotton seed cake if properly harnessed.
Proper use of this feed ingredient will lead to improved production of healthier, pig and
subsequently improves availability of livestock products such as meat therefore impacting
positively on food security.
1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The Objectives of this study were to evaluate:
1. The relative performance of pigs fed toasted and untoasted pigeonpea meal.
2. The comparative advantage of soybean meal over pigeonpea in the diet of weanling pigs.
3. The effects of the various formulations on the attainment of puberty in young gilts.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
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The findings in this study will help in the assessment of:
i. Pigeonpea as a possible substitute for soybean in swine diet
ii. Effects of anti-nutritive factor(s) in the untoasted pigeon pea.
iii. Impact of heat treatment on the anti-nutritive factors in the pigeon pea.
1.4 HYPOTHESIS
Pigeonpea based diet will enhance the growth and attainment of puberty in weanling pigs and
thereby improve the productivity of the pigs
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