ABSTRACT
The study aimed at evaluating the effects of inclusion levels and feeding frequencies of shea nut cake on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance, haematological, blood serum and economics of Yankasa rams production. Twenty-four rams averaging 16.4kg were randomly assigned to four treatment diets containing 0, 2.5, 5 and 7.5% inclusion of shea nut cake andtwo feeding frequencies, daily and skip-a-day. The result shows that hay intake, total feed intake, final weight, total weight gain and ADG were significantly (P<0.05) affected by the inclusion levels with 7.5% inclusion recording the highest values (292.07g/day, 588.70g/day, 21.02kg, 4.09kg and 51.11g respectively). Feeding frequency affected supplement intake, hay and total feed intake but did not affect on final weight, total weight gain and average daily gain. Animals on daily feeding recorded higher supplement intake (385.93 g/day) and total feed intake (574.90 g/day). Dry Matter digestibility for 7.5% inclusion was higher than the other inclusion levels with a value of 62.84%. The DM digestibility was found to progressively increase as the inclusion increased from 0% to 7.5% and this was observed to follow the same pattern with OM, CP, NFE, and ADF digestibilities. CP and EE digestibilities were affected by feeding frequency. Daily feeding (68.02%) was higher than skip-a-day feeding (58.27%) in CP and EE (71.27% versus 55.39%) digestibility. The digestibility parameters were all affected by the interaction. The percentage of nitrogen retained progressively increased as the inclusion increased from 0% to 7.5%. The daily feeding was higher than the skip-a-day feeding for nitrogen intake, nitrogen retained and percentage of nitrogen retained. All the serum parameters were affected by the inclusion levels. Serum creatinine progressively decreased as the inclusion increased from 0% (2.05mg/dl) to 7.5% (1.36mg/dl). The serum metabolites were not affected by the feeding frequencies. All the haematological parameters were affected by the inclusion levels. The WBC and Neutrophils both progressively decreased as the inclusion increased from 0-7.5% while Lymphocytes increased with increase of inclusion levels. The 0% inclusion was higher for WBC (6.65 (109/uL)), Neutrophils (54.00%), Haemoglobin (7.5g/dl), MCH (13.50pg) and MCHC (26.90g/dl) while the 7.5% inclusion was higher for Lymphocytes (63.50%), Monocytes (6.50%) and PCV (31.00%). The WBC count for the daily feeding (3.78 (109/uL)) was significantly lower than the skip-a-day feeding (6.98 (109/uL)) while the other haematological parameters were not affected by the feeding frequencies. The interaction affected the serum metabolites and the haematological parameters. The Cost of concentrate reduced as the inclusion increased from 0% to 7.5% from N51.25 to N48.20. The cost per gain of N542.48 at 7.5% was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than the cost per gain at the other inclusion levels. The feeding frequencies had no impacts on the economics of feeding Yankasa rams. It can be concluded that shea nut cake could be included in concentrate diets up to 7.5% and fed to rams without any negative impact on the growth of rams, and that rams can be supplemented with concentrate diets once in two days without a resultant loss in weight of the animals.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE…………………………………………………………………………………… i
DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………. iii
CERTIFICATION……………………………………………………………………… iv
DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………….. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………… vi
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………….. vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………… …. viii
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………… xvi
CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 Justification…………………….………….………………………………… 3
1.2 Objectives………………………………..…………………………………… 4
1.3 Research Hypotheses……………………………………………………… 8
CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………….. 6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………… 6
2.1 Sheep Production in Nigeria.…………………………………………………… 6
2.2 Significance of Sheep Production……………………………………………… 7
2.3 Small Ruminant Production Systems………………………………………….. 8
2.3.1 Extensive or Traditional system…………………………………………… ….. 8
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2.3.2 Semi-intensive system………………………………………………………….. 9
2.3.3 Intensive system………………………………………………………………… 10
2.3.4 Tethering………………………………………………………………………… 10
2.4 Constraints to Small Ruminant Production in Nigeria……………………… 11
2.4.1 Disease and parasitism…………………………………………………………. 11
2.4.2 Reproductive problems………………………………………………………….. 11
2.4.3 Nutritional constraints………………………………………………………….. 12
2.4.4 Health constraints……………………………………………………………….. 14
2.5 Feed Resources of the Tropics and Feeding of Small Ruminants……………. 15
2.5.1 Feed intake of small ruminants…………………………………………………. 15
2.5.2 Grasses and legumes and their seasonal availability……………………………. 15
2.5.3 Browse plants…………………………………………………………………… 17
2.6 Origin, Distribution and Forage Yield of Digitaria smutsii
(Woolly finger grass)………………………………………………………… 17
2.6.1 Chemical composition of Digitaria smutsii (Woolly finger grass)……………… 18
2.7 Origin, Distribution and Utilization of Shea Butter Tree……………………. 19
2.7.1 Processing and chemical composition of shea nut cake………………………… 20
CHAPTER THREE……………………………………………………………….. 23
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS……………………………………………….. 23
3.1 Location of the Study…………………………………………………………… 23
3.2 Source of Animals and Experimental Diet……………………………………… 23
3.3 Experimental Design and Treatments………………………………………… 23
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3.4 Growth Trial……………………………………………………………….…….. 24
3.5 Digestibility Study………………………………………………………………. 24
3.6 Blood Sample Collection………………………………………………………… 25
3.7 Chemical Analyses……………………………………………………………… 25
3.8 Cost-benefit Analysis…………………………………………………………… 26
3.9 Statistical Analysis……………………………………………………………… 26
CHAPTER FOUR……..…………………………………………………………… 29
4.0 RESULTS……………………………………………………………………… 29
4.1 Chemical composition of experimental diet……………………………………. 29
4.2 Main effects of inclusion levels of feeding concentrates containing shea nut cake
on feed intake and weight gain of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet…………………………………………………………………………..….. 29
4.3 Main effects of feeding frequencies of feeding concentrates containing shea nut cake
on feed intake and weight gain of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet… 32
4.4 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequencies of feeding
concentrates containing shea nut cake on feed intake and weight gain of
Yankasa rams fed a basal diet of D. smutsii hay basal diet……………………… 34
4.5 Main effects of inclusion levels of feeding concentrates containing shea nut
cake on nutrient digestibilities of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet….. 36
4.6 Main effects of feeding frequencies of feeding concentrates containing shea nut cake
on nutrient digestibility of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet………… 38
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4.7 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequencies of feeding
concentrates containing shea nut cake on nutrient digestibility of Yankasa
rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet……………………………………………… 40
4.8 Main effects of inclusion levels of feeding concentrates containing shea nut cake
on nitrogen balance of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet……………. 42
4.9 Main effects of feeding frequencies of feeding concentrates containing shea nut cake
on nitrogen balance of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet……………. 44
4.10 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequencies of feeding
concentrates containing shea nut cake on nitrogen balance of Yankasa
rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet………… ……………………………………. 46
4.11 Main effects of inclusion levels of feeding concentrates containing shea nut
cake on serum metabolites of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet………. 48
4.12 Main effects of feeding frequencies of feeding concentrates containing shea nut cake
on serum metabolites of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet……………. 50
4.13 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequencies of feeding
concentrates containing shea nut cake on serum metabolites of Yankasa
rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet………………………………………………… 52
4.14 Main effects of inclusion levels of feeding concentrates containing shea nut
cake on haematological changes of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay
basal diet………………………………………………………………………….. 54
4.15 Main effects of feeding frequencies of feeding concentrates containing shea nut
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cake on haematological changes of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay
basal diet…………………………………………………………………………. 56
4.16 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequencies of feeding
concentrates containing shea nut cake on haematological changes of
Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet……………………………………… 58
4.17 Main effects of inclusion levels of feeding concentrates containing
shea nut cake on economics of production of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii
hay basal diet……………………………………………………………………… 60
4.18 Main effects of feeding frequencies of feeding concentrates containing
shea nut cake on economics of production of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii
hay basal diet……………………………………………………………….…….. 62
4.19 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequencies of feeding
concentrates containing shea nut cake on economics of production
of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet…………………………………. 64
CHAPTER FIVE…………………………………………………………………… 66
5.0 DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………… 66
5.1 Chemical composition of supplementary diets, Shea nut cake and
Digitaria smutsii hay …………………………………………………………. 66
5.2 Voluntary feed intake and weight gain of Yankasa rams fed of
D. smutsii hay basal diet ……………………………………………………….. 66
5.2.1 Main effects of inclusion level of shea nut cake on voluntary intake and
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weight gain of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet …………………….. 66
5.2.2 Main effects of feeding frequency of shea nut cake on voluntary intake
and weight gain of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet ………………… 67
5.2.3 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequency of shea nut cake
on voluntary intake and weight gain of Yankasa rams fed
D. smutsii hay basal diet ………………………………………………………… 67
5.3 Nutrient digestibility by Yankasa rams fed of D. smutsii hay basal diet …… 68
5.3.1 Main effects of inclusion level of shea nut cake on nutrient digestibility of
Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet …………………………….……….. 68
5.3.2 Main effects of feeding frequency of shea nut cake on nutrient digestibility of
Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet …………………………………….. 68
5.3.3 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequency of shea nut cake
on nutrient digestibility of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet ……….. 69
5.4 Nitrogen balance of Yankasa rams fed by D. smutsii hay basal diet ………… 69
5.4.1 Main effects of inclusion level of shea nut cake on nitrogen balance
of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet …………….………………….. 69
5.4.2 Main effects of feeding frequency on of shea nut cake nitrogen balance
of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet …………………….………….. 70
5.4.3 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequency of shea nut
cake on nitrogen balance of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet ………. 71
5.5 Serum metabolites of Yankasa rams fed of D. smutsii hay basal diet ……… 71
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5.5.1 Main effects of inclusion level of shea nut cake on serum metabolites
of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet…………………………………… 71
5.5.2 Main effects of feeding frequency of shea nut cake on serum metabolites
of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet…………………………………… 72
5.5.3 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequency of shea nut
cake on serum metabolites of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet……… 72
5.6 Haematological parameters of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet… 73
5.6.1 Main effects of inclusion level of shea nut cake on haematological parameters
of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet…………………………………… 73
5.6.2 Main effects of feeding frequency of shea nut cake on haematological
parameters of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet……………………….. 74
5.6.3 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequency of shea
nut cake on haematological parameters of Yankasa rams fed
D. smutsii hay basal diet…………………………………..………………………. 75
5.7 Economic analysis of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet …………. 75
5.7.1 Main effects of inclusion levels of feeding concentrates containing
shea nut cake on economics of production of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii
hay basal diet ……………………………………………………………..……… 75
5.7.2 Main effects of feeding frequencies of feeding concentrates containing
shea nut cake on economics of production of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii
hay basal diet ………………………………..…………………………………… 75
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5.7.3 Interaction effects of inclusion level and feeding frequency of shea
nut cake on economic analysis of Yankasa rams fed D. smutsii hay basal diet…… 76
CHAPTER SIX…………………………..………………………………………… 77
6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION……………… 77
6.1 Summary…………………………………………………………………………. 77
6.2 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………….. 77
6.3 Recommendations………………………………………………………………. 78
REFERENCES………………….……………………………………………………… 79
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The cost of feed ingredients used in livestock feeding is on the upward trend year after year, and this is due to the ever-increasing demand and reduced supply of such feed ingredients. This increased demand and reduced supply of feed ingredients is due to the increase in competition from other species, especially humans (Kumar, 2015). Meeting nutrient requirement of animals is now recognized as a major constraint for sustainable positive growth in the livestock subsector, hence there is a need to search for and utilize agro industrial by products which will be available throughout the year. These unconventional feed ingredients will help reduce the competition between humans and livestock for the limited supply of the conventional feed ingredients, and hence narrow down the gap between feed stuff demand and availability.
In an effort to address the constraint of meeting livestock nutrient requirements, several unconventional feed ingredients have been incorporated in livestock diets. In recent times, one of the most promising unconventional feed ingredients is the Shea-nut cake. The Shea-nut cake is a by-product of the shea butter industry. Shea butter is the fat extracted from the nut of Africa Shea butter tree (Butyrospermum parkii). It is used in cosmetic formulations and as a substitute for cocoa butter in chocolate industries. Shea tree (Butyrospermum parkii) is a native of the savannah regions across Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia. It was called by different names in different countries viz., Lulu (Arabic), Bambouk butter tree (English), Karate (French), Okwuma (lgbo) Tango (Spanish) (Kumar, 2015). It is also called ori in Yoruba and kadanya in Hausa. It is edible and used as a cooking fat in Africa. The saponifiable fraction of Shea butter is composed primarily of stearic and oleic acids with lesser amounts of palmitic, linoleic and arachidonic acids while the unsaponifiable fraction of Shea butter is composed of bioactive substances that are responsible for Shea butter’s medicinal properties (Malachi, 2014).
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Shea-nut cake has been shown to vary in composition depending on whether extraction of fat was by an industrial (expeller and sometimes solvent) or traditional cottage industry method, with the industrial methods tending to be more efficient at fat extraction (Dei et al., 2007). The following ranges of nutrient compositions (percentage DM) have been reported: crude protein (8 to 25), ether extract (1.7-36.2), crude fibre (5.3 to 13.8), ash (3.3 to 7.6) and nitrogen-free extract (31.8 to 67.5) (Dei et al., 2007). Belewu et al., 2004 also reported that Shea-nut cake contains 15.02% CP, 26.00% cellulose, 55.40% acid detergent fibre and 29.30% lignin. The Shea-nut cake which constitutes a nuisance to the environment in some locations has been successfully used in several studies in feeding different species of ruminant animals including but not limited to buffalo calves (Kishan and Kalyani, 2012) as well as small ruminants such as sheep (Prasanna et al., 2016 and Konlan, 2010).
Most agricultural residues including Shea-nut cake contain some antinutritional factors which prevent the availability of other nutrients. Shea-nut cake has been found to contain some anti-nutritive factors and the following have been reported: saponins (Gohl, 1981), tannins (Okai, 1990), theobromine (Rhule, 1999), saponins and theobromine (Atuahene et al., 1998) and saponins and tannins (Annongu et al., 1996). The presence of such anti-nutritional factors like tannins could prevent the availability of some nutrients like protein to the animal if not properly processed. Additionally, the Shea-nut cake has a bitter taste due to the presence of anti-nutritional factors such as saponins making the cake to be unpalatable to livestock (Belewu and Yahaya, 2008).
Feeding diets with lowered protein content reduces input, improves nitrogen utilization efficiency, and reduces nitrogen losses from manure. Reducing dietary protein also benefits the
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producer by reducing feed cost and improving overall farm profitability (VanSaun and White, 2011).
1.1 Justification Shea-nut cake has a metabolizable energy of between 3017 and 3577kcal/kg DM depending on the processing method (Dei et al., 2008) and can be used as energy supplement to replace high cost low energy supplements like deoiled rice bran and as protein supplement to replace groundnut cake and cottonseed cake etc. Shea-nut cake is available at a relatively cheaper rate and so it can be used in the concentrate mixture as one of the unconventional feed ingredient for ruminants to minimize the cost of feeding (Kumar, 2015). Protein from Shea-nut cake might be used as cheap sources of protein supplementation in the feeding of animals. This will greatly reduce the cost of feeding as protein constitutes an expensive feed ingredient especially for low income farmers (Kumar, 2015). Oddoye et al. (2012) reported that Shea-nut cake from Shea-nut processing industries in Ghana is a potential feed ingredient due to its high values for protein (11.6 to 17.8%) and crude fat (2.5 to 54.5%). Not much work in the feeding of Shea-nut cake to small ruminants has been reported in this part of the country. This study was aimed at bridging the gap and to assess the efficiency of feeding Shea-nut cake on the growth performance of sheep.
The conservation of nitrogen in animal production must begin by improving the nitrogen use efficiency of the animals. Greater improvements in animal production are generally obtained through strategies that improve protein-feeding efficiency (Rotz, 2004). Decreasing protein concentration in dairy animal diets was found to dramatically decrease manure nitrogen losses without affecting animal production (VanSaun and White, 2011). Studies done by Yashim (2014) indicated that feeding every other day was better than feeding daily terms of in total feed intake, weight gain and decrease in methane nitrogen losses.
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The study was also an inquiry into a more efficient strategy of feeding protein supplements. The effects of different feeding frequencies of Shea-nut cake on Yankasa rams were therefore studied in order to investigate animal production with less nitrogen consumed and excreted.
1.2 Objectives The main objective of the study was to evaluate the nutritive value of Shea-nut cake as a supplement to Digitaria smutsii hay fed to Yankasa rams at different levels and frequencies. The specific objectives were to determine:
1.the effects of different inclusion levels and feeding frequencies of Shea-nut cake on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance of Yankasa rams fed a basal diet of Digitaria smutsii hay
2.the effects of different inclusion levels and feeding frequencies of Shea-nut cake on the blood serum and haematological parameters of Yankasa rams fed a basal diet of Digitaria smutsii hay
3.the economic effects of feeding of Shea-nut cake at different inclusion levels and feeding frequencies to Yankasa rams
1.3 Research Hypotheses
1.H0: Different inclusion levels and feeding frequencies of Shea-nut cake have no effect on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance of Yankasa rams.
Ha: Different inclusion levels and feeding frequencies of Shea-nut cake have effects on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance of Yankasa rams.
2.H0: Different inclusion levels and feeding frequencies of Shea-nut cake have no effect on the nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance of Yankasa rams.
Ha: Different inclusion levels and feeding frequencies of Shea-nut cake have effects on the nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance of Yankasa rams.
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3.H0: Different inclusion levels and feeding frequencies of Shea-nut cake have no effect on the economics of production of Yankasa rams.
Ha: Different inclusion levels and feeding frequencies of Shea-nut cake have effects on the economics of production of Yankasa rams.
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