ABSTRACT
This study examined the physico-chemical and heavy metal contents of borehole water and soil samples around a municipal solid waste dumpsite at Gombe metropolis, Gombe State, Nigeria. The samples were collected twice during the wet and dry seasons 2015. The water samples were analysed for the following parameters: pH, temperature, turbidity, conductivity, salinity, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Total dissolved solids (TDS), Total suspended solids (TSS), anions (PO43-, NO2–, NO3–, SO42-, Cl–, NH4+-N), essentials metals (Ca, K, Mg, Na) and heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Co, Zn, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb) concentrations and soil parameters were pH, electrical conductivity (EC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), soil moisture, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available potassium, available phosphorus, available sulphate, particle size distribution and heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Co, Zn, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb) concentrations. The results revealed that most of the physico-chemical parameters analysed recorded for the borehole water and control water samples in both seasons were below the WHO international standards for drinking water, except for high PO43- content (1.13 to 2.17 mg/l) recorded for the borehole water samples in both seasons and Cr (0.01 to 1.2 mg/L) which exceeded the WHO permissible limit of 0.1 mg/l and 0.05 mg/l respectively. The borehole water sample recorded significant increase (P<0.05) in Fe, Cr, Mn, Na, K. and a significant decrease in SO42- contents during the dry season. The heavy metal contents recorded for soil samples from the dumpsite and 20m east, west, south and north of the dumpsite and from the control site were all below the WHO international standards in both seasons. The heavy metal contents in the dumpsite soil sample in both seasons were significantly high: Pb (9.90 and 11.82 mg/kg), Zn (137 and 146 mg/kg), Ni (12.56 and 11.82 mg/kg), Cr (3.60 and 4.05 mg/kg), Cd (9.05 and 12.2 mg/kg) and Mn (94.0 and 91.2 mg/kg) in both seasons than the control; Pb (3.78 mg/kg), Zn (50.90 mg/kg), Ni (2.19 mg/kg), Cr (1.06 mg/kg), Mn (44.27 mg/kg), and Cd (1.09 mg/kg). Heavy metal contents for soil samples 20m east of the dumpsite were also significantly higher (P<0.05) than that of the control. The results of this study suggest that the solid waste dumpsite is affecting the natural quality of the ambient environment. Therefore indiscriminate dumping of municipal solid waste at the dumpsite should be organized or prohibited.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page                                                                                                                                     i
Declaration                                                                                                                                   ii
Certification                                                                                                                                 iii
Dedication                                                                                                                                   iv
Acknowledgements                                                                                                                     v
Abstract                                                                                                                                       vi
Table of contents                                                                                                                         vii
List of Tables                                                                                                                               xii
List of Figures                                                                                                                              xiv
CHAPTER ONE:Â INTRODUTION
1.1 General introduction                                                                                                              1
1.2 Statement of the problem                                                                                                      4
1.3 Aims and Objectives of study                                                                                               4
1.3.1 Aims                                                                                                                                    4
1.3.2 Specific objectives                                                                                                              5
1.4 Scope of the study                                                                                                                 5
CHAPTER TWO:Â LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Meaning of waste                                                                                                                  7
2.1 Solid waste                                                                                                                            7
2.2 Municipal solid waste                                                                                                            11
2.3 Solid waste dumpsite                                                                                                             13
2.3.1 Open dumps system                                                                                                            13
2.3.2 Sanitary landfill system                                                                                                      14
2.4 Waste management                                                                                                                15
2.4.1 Landfills                                                                                                                              16
2.4.2 Incineration                                                                                                                         16
2.4.3 Recycling                                                                                                                            17
2.5 Water                                                                                                                                     17
2.6 Soil                                                                                                                                         18
2.7 Pollution                                                                                                                                 20
2.7.1 Official acknowledgement                                                                                                 20
2.7.2 Modern awareness                                                                                                              21
2.7.3 Forms of Pollution                                                                                                              23
2.8 Water Pollution                                                                                                                      24
2.8.1 Water pollution Categories                                                                                                 24
2.8.1.1. Surface Water pollution                                                                                                  24
2.8.1.2 Groundwater pollution                                                                                                    25
2.8.2 Causes of water pollution                                                                                                   25
2.8.2.1 Pathogens                                                                                                                         26
2.8.2.2 Chemical and other contaminants                                                                                    26
2.8.3 Measurement of water pollution                                                                                         27
2.9 Water quality                                                                                                                         28
2.10 Soil/land pollution                                                                                                                29
2.10.1 Causes of soil pollution                                                                                                     29
2.10.2 Effects of contamination                                                                                                  30
2.10.2.1 Health effects                                                                                                                30
2.10.2.2. Ecosystem effects                                                                                                         31
2.10.2.3 Remediation                                                                                                                   31
2.11 Heavy metals contamination of soil                                                                                     32
2.12 Review of previous works done on physico-chemical properties of soil and water around dumpsites 36
CHAPTER THREE:Â METHODLOGY
3.1 The study area                                                                                                                        41
3.2 Material and methods                                                                                                            45
3.2.1 Sample collection                                                                                                                45
3.2.2 Sample preparation                                                                                                             45
3.2.3 Sample treatment                                                                                                                46
3.2.3.1 Treatment of water samples for heavy metal analysis                                                     46
3.2.3.2 Treatment of soil samples                                                                                                46
3.3 Water physico-chemical analysis                                                                                           46
3.3.1 Determination of pH and temperature                                                                                46
3.3.2 Determination of Conductivity, salinity and total dissolved solids                                   47
3.3.3 Determination of Dissolved oxygen (DO)Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â 47
3.3.4 Determination Biochemical Oxygen demand (BOD5)Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â 47
3.3.5. Determination of chemical oxygen demand (COD)Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â 48
3.3.6 Determination of Major Anions concentrations                                                                 48
3.3.6.1 Determination of Phosphate (PO43-) concentrations                                                         48
3.3.6.2 Determination of Nitrite (NO2–)                                                                                       49
3.3.6.3 Determination of Nitrate (NO3–)                                                                                      50
3.3.6.4 Determination of Sulphate (SO42-)Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â 51
3.3.6.5 Determination of Chloride (Cl–)                                                                                       52
3.3.6.6 Determination of Ammonium Nitrogen (NH4)Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â 52
3.3.7 Determination of Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K)Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â 53
3.6.8 Determination of hardness                                                                                                  53
3.4. Soil physico-chemical analysis                                                                                              54
3.4.1 Determination of pHÂ Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â 54
3.4.2 Electrical conductivity determination                                                                                 54
3.4.3 Cations exchange capacity determination                                                                          54
3.4.4 Soil moisture determination                                                                                                55
3.4.5 Organic carbon determination                                                                                            55
3.4.6 Total Nitrogen determination                                                                                             55
3.4.7 Available potassium determination                                                                                     56
3.4.8 Available phosphorus determination                                                                                  56
3.4.9 Available sulphur determination                                                                                         56
3.4.10 Particle size distribution determination                                                                            57
3.4.4 Determination of heavy metals                                                                                           57
3.3 Data Analysis Technique                                                                                                       58
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results of physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals of groundwater samples            59
4.1.1 Mean concentrations of pH, temperature, turbidity, salinity and conductivity in groundwater          59
4.1.2 Mean concentrations of DO, BOD5, COD, Total suspended solids (TSS) and Total dissolved solids (TDS) in groundwater and control water samples                                                                                      69
4.1.3 Mean concentrations of some major anions in groundwater                                              78
4.1.4 Mean concentrations of essential element in groundwater and control water samples      87
4.1.5 Mean concentrations of heavy metals in groundwater and control water samples            92
4.2. Results of physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals content of soil samples             101
4.2.1 Mean of pH, conductivity, cations exchange capacity and particle size distribution determination in soil sites                                                                                                                                                     101
4.2.2 Mean of Available phosphorus, available potassium, available sulphur, organic carbon, total nitrogen and soil moisture in soil samples                                                                                                               104
4.2.3 Mean concentrations of heavy metals in soil samples                                                         107
4.3 Discussion                                                                                                                              121
4.4 Recovery analysis…                                                                                                              139
CHAPTER FIVE:Â CONCLUSIONS` AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions                                                                                                                            143
5.2 Recommendations                                                                                                                 143
REFERENCESÂ Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â 145
APPENDICESÂ Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â 156
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 General introduction
Rapid increase in population and change in life style in Nigeria have resulted in a dramatic increase in the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW). It includes domestic as well as commercial waste that accounts for a relatively small part of the total solid waste stream in developed countries. Accumulation of a large amount of waste may create several problems to inhabiting populations. Population growth has been contributing to increase in the quality and variety of waste. Collection, transportation and handling of the waste if not properly dealt with, can create a number of problems, many of which are related to human health and environment1,2. Municipal solid waste management is an important part of the urban infrastructure that ensures the protection of environment and human health3,4. The accelerated growth of urban population with unplanned urbanization, increasing economic activities and lack of training in modern solid waste management practices in developing countries complicates the efforts to improve solid waste services5.
However, the unsettling problem is that dumping the waste on soil is one means which the soil quality is degraded. The polluted soil affects human health through direct human contact or inhalation of the polluted airborne dust and the consumption of the garden vegetables grown on abandoned dumpsites or around active dumpsites6. Solid waste management has become a global problem especially in the developing countries of the world. In Nigeria, for instance it is not unusual to see heaps of garbage in the major cities littering the streets, dumped in drains, vacant plots, and water bodies, and this has in many cases resulted in spread of communicable diseases7. The situation appears to continue unabated due largely to the factors of urbanization, population growth, improved life style and insufficient funds to properly manage solid waste7. Improper management of solid waste areas has resulted in serious ecological, environmental and health problems. Such practices contribute to widespread environmental pollution as well as spread of diseases8. Solid waste disposal methods are a major public concern. Majority of the municipal solid waste disposal sites in Nigeria are still open dumps. Solid waste disposal by landfill poses a threat to groundwater and surface water quality through the formation of polluting liquids known as leachate9.
Leachate generally comes into existence during dissolution in the landfill. The environments can be polluted by the leachate, which occurs at the end of decayed solid waste, mixed with precipitates of surface water. As a result, surface water collection system (rivers, creeks, lakes), subsurface collection system (groundwater reservoirs) and solid system (different soil layers) have been seriously polluted by this leachate9. Landfills are one of the sources of groundwater and soil pollution due to the production of leachate and transportation of the contamination to farther points in the ecosystem8. The contaminations of soil, water and air with heavy metals even at low concentrations are known to have potential impact on environment and human health. These metals also pose a long-term risk to groundwater and ecosystem in general10,11. The WHO, had confirmed the effects of lead intake to include, abortion, infant mortality, malformation of foetus, genetic mutation, retarded growth, intoxication, depression of respiration and chromosomal aberrations. Based on these, researchers postulated ways of controlling the generation of wastes and effects on the environment12.
Environmental monitoring refers to the set of activities that provide chemical, physical, geological, biological and environmental, social or health data required by environmental managers13. Environmental monitoring involves the systematic collection of data to determine: The actual environmental effects of a contaminant. The compliance of contaminant with regulatory standards; or the degree of implementation and success of environmental protection measures when successfully integrated with the environmental system for the project, environmental monitoring can provide valuable feedback about the effectiveness of environmental protection measures and in turn monitoring may be related to the post project evaluation12,13.
Monitoring of soil quality indicators over time identifies changes or trends in the functional status or quality of the soil. Monitoring can be used to determine the success of management practices or the need for additional management changes or adjustments14,15. In Nigeria, agencies like the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), Ministry of Environment, and Environmental Sanitation Authorities and even local authorities are responsible for planning a defined line of action for disposal and management of waste generated on daily basis in our society. Gombe States Environmental Protection Agency (GOSEPA) is not an exception. The report that refuse dumps have caused traffic delays in some strategic parts of our urban centre’s is an example of poor management of refuse dumps in Nigeria towns and cities16.
The residents of the present study area use borehole water, which is located close to the dumpsite for drinking and other domestics activities and they also use the soil around the dumpsite is used for farming activities. It is necessary to periodically examine wastes and some pollutants effect on soil and groundwater through soil and water analysis. This will go a long way in providing information needed for the development of techniques for tackling the problem of soil and groundwater pollution and effect of municipal solid wastes on the environment through proper disposal/management strategies.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Humans and other living organisms depend on a healthy environment for good health. The dumpsite examined is situated very close to residential areas. The residential areas have borehole water, and a stream is located close to the dumpsite and used by residents as drinking water and for other domestic activities. Soil around the dumpsite is used for farming activities. Rapid population growth and industrialization, coupled with indiscriminate dumping of solid wastes at the site, with little or no organized solid waste management plans have contributed to increased volume of solid wastes at the dumpsite in an alarming rate. The different wastes at the dumpsite possess different physical, chemical and biochemical properties. The waste water produced from the decomposed wastes materials when it rains, may drain into the nearby surface stream and leach into the sub-surface soil and then into the groundwater aquifers, thereby contaminating the groundwater and soil around the dumpsite. The soil texture around the dumpsite and even outside the dumpsite show very high percentage coarse sand which is highly conducive for leachate transport. In order to determine the quality of the groundwater and soil around the dumpsite, it is necessary to study the chemical constituent of the groundwater and soil samples around the dumpsite. The results of this finding are expected to reveal the present quality of the groundwater and soil around the dumpsite.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study
1.3.1 Aim
Â
To study the physico-chemical parameters of soil and groundwater around a municipal solid waste dumpsite in Gombe metropolis
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
- To assess the physico-chemical parameters of groundwater samples collected from east, west, north and south around the dumpsite.
- To compare the physico-chemical parameters of groundwater samples collected around dumpsite and control sample (800m) away from dumpsite with the international standard for drinking water.
- To assess the physico-chemical parameters of soil samples collected around the dumpsite.
- To compare the physico-chemical parameters of soil samples around the dumpsite with the control site (500m) away and samples from (20m) outside the dumpsite.
- To compare the heavy metal contents of groundwater and soil samples from the dumpsite and samples from the control site.
- To compare the physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals contents recorded for groundwater and soil samples during the rainy and dry seasons.
1.4 Scope of the Study Â
This study examined the physico-chemical parameters and heavy metal in the groundwater and soil sample, at Herwagana’s municipal solid wastes dumpsite at Gombe metropolis, Gombe State, North East Nigeria, during rainy and dry seasons. The parameters of groundwater examined were pH, temperature, conductivity, turbidity salinity, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Total dissolved solids (TDS), Total suspended solids (TSS), nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, sulphate, chloride, calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Co, Zn, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb) concentrations while soil parameters examined were pH, electrical conductivity; cations exchange capacity, soil moisture, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available potassium, available phosphorus, available sulphate, particle size distribution and heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Co, Zn, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb) concentrations. The parameters were assessed using standard analytical procedure while the heavy metals were assay by (AAS, unicam 969).
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