ABSTRACT
Twenty one different feed sources collected in and around Zaria were analyzed for nutrient
composition. One energy source (maize offal) and three protein sources (layer litter, broiler
litter and whole cotton seed) were selected for the three cattle fattening trials based on their
nutritive value, availability and cost.
In the first fattening trial, twenty Bunaji bulls weighing between 230- 250 kg were used to
study the effect of sun-dried layer litter (SDLL) as protein source to replace cotton seed
cake for fattening bulls fed sorghum stover basal diet. The concentrates were offered at
60% of 3% body weight individually and sorghum stover, water and mineral salt lick were
offered ad libitum.
Intake of the concentrate decreased with increase in the proportion of SDLL replacing CSC
in the diets. Intake of the concentrate containing 0, 25, 50 and 75% SDLL were similar
(P>0.05) but different significantly (P<0.05) from those containing 100% SDLL. The range
was from 2.55 to 4.74kg/head/day. Level of SDLL in the diets had no effect on the intake
of sorghum stover. Total daily feed intake ranged between 3.73 and 5.96kg, there were no
differences between diets containing 0, 25, 50 and 75% SDLL, but diet containing 100%
SDLL differed significantly (P<0.05) from others. Body condition score ranged from 4.58
to 4.88 while rumen ammonia nitrogen (RAN) level was from 8.13 to 14.10mg/100ml and
rumen pH from 6.38 to 6.88. The values taken at the end of the study were not significantly
different (P>0.05) for pH and body condition score but RAN was affected by the levels of
SDLL replacing CSC in the diets. Average liveweight gain increased with increase in the
level of SDLL replacing CSC in the diets up to 50% and then declined, there were no
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difference between bulls on diets containing 25, 50 and 75% SDLL. The range was
between 0.570 and 0.873kg/day. Feed conversion efficiency was significantly (P<0.05)
affected by the level of SDLL replacing CSC in the diets while feed cost per gain decreased
linearly as the level of SDLL replacing CSC decreased in the diets. Crude protein
digestibility and nitrogen retention were significantly affected by the level of SDLL
replacing CSC in the diets. Dressing percentage of the bulls ranged from 49.49 to 50.57%,
the differences were not significant (P>0.05). Over all income over feed cost ranged
between N6228.00 and N1303.35. Bulls on diet in which 50% of the CSC was replaced by
SDLL had the highest (P<0.05) overall income over feed cost.
In the second experiment, twenty Bunaji bulls weighing between 200 and 250kg were used
to study the effect of replacing CSC with sun-dried broiler litter (SDBL) at 0,20,50,75 and
100% on feedlot performance of bulls fed bracharia hay as basal diet.
Intake of the concentrate containing 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% SDBL replacement were 3.98,
3.85, 3.84, 3.82 and 3.82kg/head/day respectively. The differences were not significant
(P>0.05). Intake of bracharia hay and total DM intakes were also not significantly (P>0.05)
affected by the levels of SDBL in the diets. Average daily liveweight gain decreased
linearly as the level of SDBL replacing CSC increased in the diets. There was no
significant difference between the liveweight gains of bulls on diets in which 0, 25 and
50% of the CSC was replaced by SDBL. Feed conversion efficiency decreased
significantly (P<0.05) as the levels of SDBL replacing CSC increased in the diets. There
were no differences between diets containing 0, 25 and 50% SDBL. Feed cost per gain was
lowest on diet which contains 50% SDBL replacement. Body condition score, rumen
ammonia nitrogen, PCV, total protein and blood urea nitrogen level taken at the end of the
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trial were affected significantly (P<0.05) by the levels of SDBL replacing CSC in the diets.
Digestibilities of DM was highest in diet containing no SDBL and lowest for diet
containing 100% SDBL. There were no differences between the DM digestibility of diets
containing 0 and 25% SDBL. CP digestibility increased significantly (P<0.05) with
increased level of SDBL up to 50% level of replacement then declined. Nitrogen retention
increased significantly (P<0.05) as the levels of SDBL replacing CSC increased in the diets
up 25% SDBL replacement the declined. The amount of nitrogen retained on diets
containing 25 and 50% SDBL were similar. Dressing percentage of the bulls ranged
between 50.51 and 51.44%, the differences were not significant (P>0.05) between the
treatments. Overall income over feed cost ranged between N 5403.52 and N 2860.52, there
were no significant (P<0.05) differences in overall income over feed cost in bulls on diets
in which SDBL replaced 0, 25 and 50% of the CSC in the diets.
In the third experiment the effects of graded levels of maize offals and whole cotton seed on the
fattening performance of Bunaji bulls were studied using twenty bulls of liveweight ranging
between 200-250kg.
Intake of the concentrates, gamba hay and total DM increased (P<0.05) as the proportions of
WCS decreased in the diet. There were no significant (P>0.05) differences between diets
containing 20, 40 and 60% WCS. The total DMI of the concentrates containing 80, 60, 40 and
20% WCS was 5.18, 6.42, 6.70 and 6.82 kg/head/day. Crude protein intake ranged between
737.20 to 866.16g/head/day and was affected (P<0.05) by the levels of WCS in the diets.
Average daily liveweight gain of the bulls on diets containing 80, 60, 40 and 20% WCS were
0.470, 0.570, 0.789 and 0.631kg/head respectively. Bulls on the diets containing 40% WCS had
the highest (P<0.05) daily liveweight gain. Feed efficiency and feed cost per gain was also best
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for bulls on diet the containing 40% WCS. Body condition score, PCV; blood urea nitrogen,
rumen ammonia nitrogen taken at the end of the trial were all affected (P<0.05) by the levels of
WCS in the diets. However, levels of WCS in the diets and sampling time had no effect on the
total protein and rumen pH. Dry matter and CP digestibility were similar (P>0.05) for diets
containing 20, 40 and 60% WCS. While digestibilities of CF, ether extract ADF, NDF and
organic matter were not affected by the levels of WCS in the diets. Nitrogen retention was
positive for all diets and was affected (P<0.05) by the level of WCS in the diets. Dressing
percentage ranged from 50.43 to 52.13% and income over feed cost ranged between N1012.36
and N4084.53. Bulls on diets containing 40% WCS gave the highest income over feed cost.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Title Page __________________________________________________________________i
Copy-right Statement _________________________________________________________ii
Declaration _________________________________________________________________iii
Certification ________________________________________________________________iv
Dedication _________________________________________________________________v
Acknowledgement ___________________________________________________________vi
Table of contents ____________________________________________________________vii
List of Tables _______________________________________________________________xiv
List of appendices ___________________________________________________________xvi
Abbreviations ______________________________________________________________xvii
Abstract __________________________________________________________________xix
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction ________________________________________________________1
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review ____________________________________________________4
2.1 Feedlot operation in Nigeria ____________________________________________ 4
2.2 Protein sources in cattle feeding _________________________________________ 7
2.2.1 Conventional protein sources ___________________________________________ 7
2.2.2 Non conventional protein sources _______________________________________ 8
ix
2.3.0 Protein metabolism in ruminants __________________________________________11
2.3.1 Sources of nitrogen available for rumen metabolism _____________________ 11
2.3.2 Factors affecting extent of protein degradation _________________________ 14
2.3.3 Rumen ammonia concentration and rumen bacteria protein synthesis ________ 17
2.4.0 The use of Poultry litter in ruminant feeding __________________________________19
2.4.1 Chemical composition and Nutritive value of poultry litter ________________19
2.4.2 Effect of processing on nutritive value of poultry litter ___________________ 22
2.4.3 Safety in feeding poultry litter ______________________________________25
2.4.4 Responses of animals fed diets containing poultry litter __________________29
2.5.0 Cotton production in Nigeria ______________________________________________34
2.5.1 Chemical composition of whole cottonseed ____________________________ 36
2.5.2 Occurrence and distribution of gossypol ______________________________36
2.5.3 Effect of processing whole cottonseed on gossypol content _______________38
2.5.4 Gossypol toxicity in Livestock ______________________________________40
2.5.5. Effect of gossypol on reproduction ___________________________________ 42
2.5.6 Fate of ingested gossypol ____________________________________________45
2.5.7 Effect of feeding whole cottonseed and rumen fermentation ________________46
2.5.8. Effect of feeding whole cottonseed on dry matter intake,
hematological variables and blood mineral levels _________________________48
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and methods ___________________________________________________51
3.1 Location of the study ____________________________________________________51
x
3.2 Experiment 1:
Nutrient composition of some selected non conventional feedstuffs __________ 51
3.3 Experiment 2:
Replacement value of sundried layer litter (SDLL) for cotton seedcake
in fattening ration for bulls ___________________________________________ 53
3.4 Experiment 3:
Replacement value of sundried broiler litter (SDBL) for cotton seedcake
in fattening ration for bulls ____________________________________________54
3.5 Experiment 4:
Effect of feeding graded levels of whole cottonseed and maize offal on
Fattening performance of bulls ______________________________________55
3.6 Parameters measured in all the fattening trials ________________________________56
3.6.1 Liveweight of animals and body condition scores _______________________56
3.6.2 Feed consumption ________________________________________________57
3.6.3. Rumen fluid sampling _____________________________________________ 57
3.6.4 Blood sampling ___________________________________________________57
3.7 Digestibility studies ______________________________________________________58
3.8 Carcass evaluation ______________________________________________________58
3.9 Analytical procedures ____________________________________________________59
3.9.1. Chemical analysis_____________________________________________________59
3.9. 2. Biochemical analysis ____ _____________________________________________59
3.10 Statistical Analysis _____________________________________________________59
3.11 Calculations ___________________________________________________________60
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results ___________________________________________________________62
4.1 Experiment 1 __________________________________________________________62
xi
4.2 Experiment 2:
4.2.1 Chemical composition of the experimental diets ________________________66
4.2.2 Dry matter and nutrient intake of the experimental diets __________________66
4.2.3. Liveweight changes ______________________________________________70
2.4.4. Rumen ammonia nitrogen concentration and PH _______________________72
4.2.5 .Nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention ___________________________73
4.2.6. Carcass evaluation _______________________________________________76
4.2.7. Economic evaluation _____________________________________________77
4.3. Experiment 3: _____________________________________________________80
4.3.1 Chemical composition of the diets __________________________________80
4.3.2. Voluntary intake of the diets _______________________________________ 80
4.3.3. Liveweight changes ______________________________________________84
4.3.4. Rumen ammonia nitrogen concentration and blood metabolites ____________86
4.3.5. Nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention ___________________________87
4.3.6. Carcass evaluation _______________________________________________90
4.3.7. Economic evaluation _____________________________________________93
4.4. Experiment 4 : _______________________________________________________95
4.4.1 Nutrient composition of the diets ____________________________________95
4.4.2 Voluntary intake of the diets ________________________________________95
4.4.3. Liveweight changes _____________________________________________98
4.4.4. Rumen PH and Rumen ammonia nitrogen concentration ________________100
4.4.5. Blood metabolites ______________________________________________102
xii
4.4.6. Nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention __________________________103
4.4.7. Carcass evaluation _______________________________________________107
4.4.8 Economic evaluation _____________________________________________107
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Discussion———————————————————————————–111
5.1 Experiment 1: ___________________________________________________111
5.1.1 Plant -products _____________________________________________________111
5.1.2 Animal waste ______________________________________________________114
5.2.0 Experiment 2: __________________________________________________ 115
5.2.1 Chemical composition of the diets ________________________________115
5.2.2 Voluntary intake of the diets _____________________________________115
5.2.3. Liveweight changes ___________________________________________115
5.2.4. Rumen ammonia nitrogen concentration ___________________________118
5.2.5 Nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention _________________________119
5.2.6. Carcass evaluation ____________________________________________120
5.2.7 Economic evaluation __________________________________________121
5.2.8 Conclusion __________________________________________________122
5.3.0 Experiment 3: ___________________________________________________123
5.3.1 Chemical composition of the diets __________________________________123
5.3.2 Voluntary intake of the diets _______________________________________124
5.3.3. Liveweight changes _____________________________________________124
5.3.4. Rumen ammonia nitrogen concentration _____________________________125
xiii
5.3.5 Blood parameters _______________________________________________126
5.3.6 Nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention __________________________127
5.3.7. Carcass evaluation _____________________________________________128
5.3.8 Conclusion ___________________________________________________128
5.4 Experiment 4: __________________________________________________129
5.4.1 Chemical composition of the diets _________________________________129
5.4.2 Voluntary dry matter intake of the diets _____________________________129
5.4.3. Liveweight changes _____________________________________________130
5.4.4. Rumen ammonia nitrogen concentration and pH ______________________131
5.4.5. Blood metabolites ______________________________________________132
5.4.6. Nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention __________________________133
5.4.7. Carcass evaluation ______________________________________________134
5.4.8 Economic evaluation ____________________________________________135
5.4.9 Conclusion ____________________________________________________136
6.0 Summary and general conclusion ________________________________________137
References______________________________________________________________139
Appendices _____________________________________________________________165
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Nigeria beef cattle are raised largely through the extensive management system. Under this
system animals obtain their nutrients mainly from overgrazed range and crop residue (Olayiwole
and Olorunju, 1987) which are low in both quality and quantity (Blair Rains, 1963., Kapu, 1975.,
Umoh and Koch, 1971). Furthermore, the extent to which such range is declining due to
increase in land use for crop production, overgrazing, urbanization and population increase is
alarming. The summary of reports on range and feed resources inventory (Egunjobi, 1970., de
Leeuw, 1977 and Awogbade and Famoriyo, 1982) suggests that under the existing level of
grassland management, there is inadequate feed to sustain the present population of 14 million
cattle. The traditional system of beef production cannot therefore, be expected to meet the
present and future beef demand of the country. The intensive beef production system in the form
of feedlot fattening offer a means of increasing edible carcass rapidly as a short term measure.
Feedlot operation is not entirely new to Nigeria and several of the earlier fattening trials carried
out in the country (Olayiwole and Fulani, 1980., Olayiwole et al., 1981 and Ikhatua and
Olayiwole, 1982) showed appreciable increase 30-40% in the liveweight of the indigenous
breeds of cattle (Olayiwole et al., 1975). However, the adoption rate of the results of these
studies is very low due to the high cost of feed ingredients (maize grain, guinea corn, maize
silage, groundnut cake and cotton seed cake) used in these studies, making the scheme less
profitable and unattractive. There is therefore, the need to continuously search for alternative and
cheaper protein and energy sources. Feed constitutes about 70-80% of the variable cost of
fattening cattle (Powel, 1975, Olayiwole et al., 1981), consequently, any feeding system that will
2
reduce feed cost will ultimately result in reduction of total cost of production and increase profit
margin. Thus, the use of non-conventional feedstuffs and crop residues which have little
opportunity cost in the other uses on the farm can be substituted for the conventional and very
expensive feedstuffs to reduce cost.
Maize offal is a by-product of maize grain processing which is a major staple food in the
northern part of Nigeria. Poultry litter (PL) is a waste product of the poultry industry; it is
nutritious, available and very cheap. Poultry litter has been used as a source of manure for crop
production for a long time, however, there is also considerable evidence in literature that PL has
been used as a source of nitrogen in ruminant diets, containing moderate to high energy level
(El-Sabban et al., 1970., Smith and Calvert, 1976). Poultry litter is less harmful than urea,
inexpensive and available; it is fairly high in crude protein while the energy content compares
favourably with those of high quality roughages (Fontenot and Jurubesco, 1980., Flachwosky
and Henning, 1990). Poultry litter is capable of supplying the rumen microbes’ nitrogen
necessary for rumen bacteria synthesis and the nitrogen is ten times more efficiently utilized as
fed to ruminants than when used as manure for growing crops or for methane generation (Smith
and Wheeler, 1979 and Fontenot et al., 1983). Feeding poultry litter to cattle will help to dispose
of huge amounts of these otherwise waste products and reduce environmental pollution, decrease
cost of feeding cattle and recycle nutrients in the poultry litter as animal feed. In addition, poultry
litter is not used in the diets of monogastric animals and the competition for use as organic
fertilizer is not critical yet.
Cotton is also an important cash crop grown mainly in the northern parts of the country. The
crop supplies some of the raw materials required by the local textile industries. Whole cottonseed
is a by-product of the cotton ginnery industries found all over in the cotton producing zone of
3
Nigeria. The cotton belt coincidentally is the main cattle producing area of the country. Whole
cottonseed (WCS) is an excellent supplement for average to high producing cattle (Chandler,
1992., Arieli, 1998 and Bernard, 1999). It is rich in protein (22-24%), energy (14 MJ/kg) and
fibre and therefore could be referred to as a concentrate (Arieli, 1998). Cottonseed is cheaper
than the oil cakes and it is known to most livestock farmers and can be fed whole or in
combination with other feedstuffs and does not require grinding, rolling, milling or any other
processing/ preparation (Peters, 2002). However, the primary concern about the feeding of whole
cotton seed stems from its content of natural toxin-gossypol. The gossypol is found in the
pigment gland scattered throughout the kernel and it is about 1.0% of the total weight of the
kernel (Peters, 2002, Ikurior and Fetuga, 1984). Although ruminants have detoxifying
mechanisms for gossypol (Reiser and Fu, 1962), signs of toxicity such as depressed heamoglobin
and total protein of plasma and increased erythrocyte fragility has been reported in lactating
cows fed 10.00 kg/cow/day of whole cotton seed (0.225% free gossypol) during 14 weeks
(Lindsey et al., 1980). The earlier attempt to fatten bulls using WCS (Olayiwole 1975) gave
daily liveweight gain of about 0.8 to 0.9 kg per head. The major limitation of this study was the
use of maize silage, groundnut cake and maize or guinea corn in combination with WCS. These
feedstuffs are expensive and out of reach of most farmers and hence, the need to re-evaluate
WCS with other agro-industrial by-products that have little opportunity cost in other uses for
fattening. The objectives of the present studies are:
 to determine the nutritive value of some non-conventional feed resources
 to determine feedlot performance of cattle fed graded levels of non-conventional feed
sources.
 to determine the economics of fattening bulls on these feed sources.
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