ABSTRACT
This study sought to establish the relationship between Gender and Preferred
Content in Children’s Drawing. A total of 220 pupils stratified into 110 males and
110 females drawn from eleven randomly selected primary schools in Zaria
metropolis were used for the study. Four research questions were raised and four
null hypotheses were generated. A narrative adopted from Tuman’s (1999) study,
was validated by experts in the department of Fine Art Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria Kaduna state of Nigeria and used as a major tool for data collection. Chisquare
(ײ), cross tabulation, ANOVA and t-test were used for the analyses related
to the null hypotheses. A histogram was also used for the distribution of the scores
explaining the scores on formal characteristics used by the subjects in the study
by sex. The results revealed that none of the four null hypotheses was retained; all
the hypotheses were rejected. However, the results revealed that there were
significant differences in the drawing content chosen by boys and girls. It also
showed that there were significant differences between the way boys and girls use
lines, colour, shape, texture, space and composition; there were inter-relationships
in the forms and content of drawings of boys and girls and there were significant
differences between the drawings of boys and girls in terms of gender
characteristics. The findings revealed that girls exceeded the boys in the use of
elements of art. It is recommended that provision be made for tests and activities
that would allow pupils to think and ask questions that would lead to discoveries
and motivate learners to create drawings outside their gender characteristics.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification Page iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Abstract vi
Table of contents vii
List of tables x
List of figures xi
List of plates xii
List of Appendices xiii
Glossaries ix
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2. Statement of the problem 2
1.3 Objective of the study 6
1.4. Justification for the Research 8
1.5. Research Questions 8
1.6. Statement of Hypotheses 9
1.7. Significance of the Study 9
1.8. Basic Assumptions 11
1.9. Delimitation of the Study 11
1.10. Limitation 11
CHAPTER TWO
2.0. Review of Related Literature
2.1. Introduction 13
2.2. Theoretical Framework 14
2.3 The Importance of Child Art 15
2.4. Characteristics of Children’s Art/Drawing 17
2.4.1. Description of the Six Characteristics of Art used for this Study 18
2.5. Gender Issues in Art Classroom 23
2.5.1. Environmental Influences on Children’s Gender Stereotyping 26
2.5.2. Gender Issues in the Artistic Development of Children 29
2.5.3. Theories of Gender – Role Development in Children 28
2.5.4 Some Common sex Differences 34
2.6. Motivating Children for Art Activity 41
2.7. Issues In Evaluating Children’s Art Work 47
2.8. Developmental Stages in Children’s Art 54
2.9. Implication of Literature Review for the Study 91
2.9.1. Uniqueness of the Study 92
2.10 Summary 92
– 9 –
CHAPTER THREE
3.0. Methodology
3:1 Introductions 94
3:2. Research design 95
3:3. Population of the study 95
3:4. The Sample and sampling Procedure 96
3:5. Selections of the topic 99
3:6. Instrumentation 100
3:6:1.Introduction 100
3:6:2. Validity and Reliability of the Instrument 100
3:7. Pilot study 101
3:8 Data Collection, Scoring and Analysis 102
3.9 Scoring 103
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. Analysis of data and findings
4:1. Introductions 105
4:2. Analysis of data 105
4.2.1 Hypothesis 1 106
4.2.2 Hypothesis 2 106
4.2.3 Hypothesis 3 107
4.2.4 Hypothesis 4 114
4.3. Summary of Result 114
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations 117
5:1. Introduction 117
5:2. Statement of specific objective 117
5:3. Descriptions of procedure 118
5:4. Major Findings 118
5:5. Conclusions 120
5:6. Recommendations 121
5.7. Suggestions for Further Studies 122
References 123
Appendices 137
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. Background to the Study
1.1. Introduction
Gender – preferred characteristics of children’s drawing has been, for the
past century, an area of consistent research focus on children’s artistic
development (Tuman, 1999). The idea that the spontaneous drawings of young
children may throw light upon the psychology of child development and artistic
performance have also greatly influenced the objectives of art education and
teaching strategies (Garber,2003; Wagner– Ott,2002). The failure of many of
these studies to interpret findings (data) on children’s drawing in terms of gender
stereotyped content has often led to biased / wrong assumptions about the
possibility of gender differences in children’s drawing.
Thompson (2003) and Tuman (1999) cite Kerschensteiner’s (1905)
conclusions as an instance of failure to interpret data in terms of gender
appropriately. Kerschensteiner, who had earlier concluded that the drawing
abilities of boys were superior to those of girls, drew this conclusion based on his
analysis of children’s ability to show spatial relationships without considering the
different social interests such as fight or flowers in the drawing of boys and girls. It
is possible that Kerschensteiner’s conclusion, if examined, might have led him to
different conclusions.
Goodenough’s research (1926) on children’s drawings of human figure is
another study which highlights some of the problems associated with research
assumptions on gender and the analysis of data. Goodenough states that primary
– 18 –
school age girls performed significantly better than boys in their abilities to draw
the human figure in detail and proportion.
While this finding has been confirmed by American, English and Danish
researchers in later years, (Cox, 1993; Papadakis, 1989; Wilson 1977; Koppitz,
1968; Dale 1963), questions are still been asked as to whether these abilities are
derived from biological or psycho – cultural differences in the development of the
boys and girls used for the study. Scott (1981) argues against the findings of
Goodenough, that if these studies focused on elements of drawing and not detail
and proportion which are elements traditionally associated with girls’ drawings, the
study might have concluded that the drawings of boys were significantly better /
superior. Other examples of previous researches which have used inconsistent
criteria for judging and interpreting gender differences in children’s drawings
abound in the literature (Blaikie, 2003; Gardner, 1982).
1.2. Statement of the Problem
Child art is something precious. It is fresh, lively and spontaneous. It
appears only in childhood and begins to die when the child approaches
adolescence. It is damaged by any attempt on the part of the teacher to impose
adult standards upon the child. It has aesthetic qualities of vitality and liveliness
and also has naturalness which has often been interpreted as freedom, simplicity
or sincerity (Carline, 1968; Tomlinson, 1966, Richardson, 1964 and Ruskin, 1907).
Children lost interest in art when their work loses its freshness and vitality.
In place of the bright colours and happy spontaneity, there appears the more
– 19 –
laboured and altogether duller work. The lack of interest and decline in the child’s
artwork has been a source of worry for parents and teachers. It would appear that
this situation is only applicable to art because in other subject areas, one might
expect ability and skill to increase in proportion to the child’s interest and the effort
of hisher teachers (Tuman, 1999). Wagner – Ott (2002) suggests that there are
certain extraneous factors which cause the child to loose interest in art and which
affects children’s drawing preference. These are inadequate teaching and
instructional methods of art teachers, their gender, interests and attitudes, lack of
motivation, environmental factors such as schools, teachers and parents, gender
socialization as well as psycho – cultural influence.
Researchers have also suggested possible solutions to problems of
children’s drawing preferences such as , inadequate teaching and instructional
methods of art teachers, their gender and interest. Some of the suggestions
include:-
i. The need to improve teaching strategies in art education (Danko-McGhee and
Slutsky 2003).
ii. Reflect the diversity of students in the classroom (Garber, 2003; WEEA,
1998).
iii. Include gender and feminist issues in art education curriculum contents
(Sadker, 2000; Moore and Trahan, 1997).
iv. Ensure that Parents / teachers constantly motivate children for art (Myra and
Sadker, 1998).
– 20 –
v. The need to make children interpret popular art works from a socio-cultural
viewpoint to see how gender can affect drawings (Freeman, 1994; 1998).
Research findings point to the fact that improved teaching strategies on the
formal characteristics of drawing had resulted in improved performance (Danko-
McGhee and Slutsky, (2003) Sadker (2000). Moore and Trahan (1997) also found
that the inclusion of gender and feminist issues in art education curriculum
content enhanced the understanding of the system of symbols as gender specific
drawing.
The attention of recent researchers has been turned away from questions
of “superiority” and “inferiority, and have started looking into other differences of
the relationship between gender and style. The common trend in the findings of
researchers is that girls show a marked interest in drawing of human figure as
well- proportioned, realistic and natural (Cox, 1993; McNiff, 1981; Majewski,
1978; Koppitz, 1968 and Machover, 1960). On the other hand, drawings of human
and the environment seem less important to be recorded in detail as boys have
been found to prefer to draw figures in imagery situations of conflict, humour,
fantasy and action with soldiers and machines, fighting among others. (Duncum,
1986; McNiff, 1981; Wilson, 1977; Feinburg, 1977; Lindstrom, 1962; McCarty,
1954).
Researchers in the field argue that preference in art generally results from
socialization of gender roles (Flannery and Watson 1995; Duncum, 1986).
Flannery and Watson argue that boys’ drawing content shows a socialized interest
in fantasy and violence which is beyond their daily life experience. On the other
– 21 –
hand, they posit that girls’ drawing content seems to be more realistic and can be
related to their everyday experience. According to Duncum (1986) gendered
content is a reflection of children’s developmental preoccupations because they
are compelled to conform to social norms
Researchers have also considered as valid, the idea that certain content
areas may support/promote tendencies in characteristics. Feinburg (1977) finds
that when boys and girls are asked to draw pictures in response to the words
“fighting” and “helping”, girls drew “fighting” in terms of emotional conflict between
friends and family, and “helping” in terms of personal assistance or care for
someone they knew. On the other hand, boys drew “fighting” as an indirect
aggressive action between violent armies, fantasy creatures and “helping” as a
form of contribution to a common task like building a house or constructing a
bridge. While the drawings of boys are generally action – packed, those of girls
contrasted considerably because they are mainly figure centered symmetrical
images. According to Feinburg, girls’ preference for symmetry is evidence of two
culturally learned approaches to subject matter. The author argues that while girls
used a “personal” approach to drawing, boys used a “de-personal” approach. He
concludes that these two approaches to subject matter are responsible for the
different spatial arrangements in children’s drawing.
While the studies examined here have provided an important framework for
the understanding of the complex relationship between gender and style in
children’s drawing, not a single one has questioned whether there is a relationship
between gender – preferred content and form. Studies so far conducted in the
– 22 –
area of gender and drawing in Nigeria seem not to explain the complex
relationship between gender and style. For example, none of these studies:
Zamani – Yusuf (1992); Mohammed (1988); Akiga (1985); Olorukooba (1981);
Bakare (1972) and Abiola (1965) present an in-depth analysis of gender
differences among the subjects studied. More so, while some earlier studies
identified the existence of different styles in the subject content of the drawings of
boys and girls, these studies did not examine how the differences affect the artistic
development of children (Ballard, 1912; Lark – Horovitz, Lewis and Luca 1967;
Eagly, 1987).
Similarly, while later studies have suggested that gender content interferes with
children’s formal characteristics, some researchers in the field have criticized
these studies for not being consistent in their research design and analysis
(Majewski, 1978; Feinburg, 1977).
This research will, therefore, examine the relationship between gender and
preferred content in children’s drawing among selected primary school children in
Zaria metropolis. The study will compare the way boys and girls use formal
characteristics of forming drawing.
1.3. Objective of study
The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship (if any) between
gender and preferred content in children’s drawing among some selected Primary
School children in Zaria metropolis. Art making is a natural development process
that young children engage in to illustrate and explain the world in which they live
– 23 –
(Danko-McGhee, 2003). Children can communicate thoughts and feelings in art
before they develop more conventional means of expressing ideas and emotions
in words. Expressive art making requires the use of symbols which will assist them
in creating meaning (content) for themselves about their world (Lasky and Mukerji,
1981). Again, in the use of symbols, certain visual qualities and processes in
children’s drawings are gender specific and should be understood by teachers
(Laura, 1985). The need for understanding the system of symbols as gender
specific (Keifer-Boyd, 2003) in children’s art, may not be unconnected with the
general assumption that art, as a universal language has no gender barrier, and,
or the teachers handling of the subject.
A sizeable proportion of learners find the teaching of art either as
uninteresting or unchallenging because of the way the teacher presents the
subject. This probably accounts for the diminishing proportion of learners offering
art at all levels of education as well as the persistent low performance in art
courses (Olorukooba, 1977, 1990; Mbahi, 1995).
Specifically, this research examined the relationship between gender and
preferred content in children’s drawings among selected primary school children in
Zaria. The study compared the way boys and girls use formal characteristics of
form in drawing.
– 24 –
1.4. Justification for the Research
Studies so far conducted in this area have reported the existence of
certain extraneous factors which are responsible for children losing interest in art:
such as:- environmental, lack of effective teaching and, indeed, encouragement of
gender difference in the art products of boys and girls and lack of motivation to
create drawings outside children’s gender characteristics.
1.5. Research Questions
Specifically, this study will seek to answer the following questions: –
1. Is there any gender difference in the drawing content chosen by boys
and girls?
2. Will there be any significant differences in the way boys and girls use formal
characteristics of forming drawing with:-
(a) Line,
(b) Shape,
(c) Texture,
(d) Space and
(e) Composition?
3. Will there be any inter-relationship between form and content in the drawings of
boys and girls?
4. Will there be any relationship between the drawings of boys and girls in terms of
their gender characteristics?
– 25 –
1.6. Statement of Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were formulated in this study.
HO1. There is no significant difference between the drawing contents chosen by
boys and girls.
Ho2. There is no significant difference between the way boys and girls use formal
characteristics of forming drawing with respect to
(a) Line,
(b) Colour,
(c) Shape,
(d) Texture,
(e) Space And
(f) Composition.
Ho3. There is no inter-relationship between form and content in the drawing of
boys and girls.
Ho4. There is no significant difference between the drawings of boys and girls in
terms of their gender characteristics.
1.7. Significance of the Study
1. Research in child art has continued to be of interest to art educators,
teachers, parents and psychologists because it concerns the psychological
development of the child and the aesthetic value of his products. A research into
gender – preferred characteristics of children’s drawings will no doubt be valuable
– 26 –
to schools at all levels of education–Nursery, Primary, Secondary, Teachers’
Training and Department of Fine Arts in various Polytechnics and Universities.
The Society of Nigeria Artists (SNA), Nigeria Society for Education through Art
(NSEA) and other research bodies like Nigerian Educational and Research
Development Council (NERDC) as well as the National Council for Arts and
Culture (NCAC) might find the result of this research useful in organizing
conferences, workshops, seminars and reviewing of the art curriculum.
2. Studies so far conducted in this area have reported the existence of certain
extraneous factors which are responsible for children losing interest in art: such as
environment, lack of effective teaching, encouragement of gender difference in
the art products of boys and girls and lack of motivation to create drawings outside
children’s gender characteristics. It is therefore hoped that this study will proffer
some solution to the problems enumerated.
3. Research activities so far carried out in this area in Nigeria has not
touched on the complex relationship between gender and artistic production
(drawing). It is hoped that the outcome of this study will give an insight into gender
differences in the drawings, the subjects, as well as examine how these
differences affect the artistic development of children.
4. Non – inclusion of gender feminist issues in art education curriculum
content has long been a major source of concern. It is hoped that the study will
suggest an appropriate form and content for both sexes in art education curriculum
at all levels (Nursery, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary).
– 27 –
1.8. Basic Assumptions
The following assumptions were made for the study:
1. The population chosen for this study was representative of primary schools
in Zaria metropolis.
2. The topic – “Formal characteristic and elements of art” constitute an aspect
of the art syllabus used in the schools sampled and is also appropriate for
the sample.
3. The content themes are appropriate for boys and girls
1. 9. Delimitation of the Study
The study was delimited to finding the relationship between gender and
preferred content in children’s drawing among selected Primary school children
in Zaria metropolis as follows:-
1. Subjects for this study were drawn only from the eleven (11) schools where
creative arts as a subject is being offered out of seventy-six (76) private
primary schools in Zaria metropolis.
2. Only primary six children aged 10-12 were randomly selected for the study.
3. The study was delimited to formal characteristics and elements of art.
1.10. Limitations
The major sources of limitation for this study were time and financial
constraints. Only primary schools where creative arts as a subject is being taught
were sampled in order to obtain the necessary information needed for this study.
Do you need help? Talk to us right now: (+234) 08060082010, 08107932631 (Call/WhatsApp). Email: [email protected].
IF YOU CAN'T FIND YOUR TOPIC, CLICK HERE TO HIRE A WRITER»
