ABSTRACT
This study entitled “An Examination of Cloth Weaving and its Socio-economic Impacts of Weaving in Ushongo Local Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria,” is an attempt to assess and document the socio-economic impacts of weaving in Ushongo Local Government Area of Benue State. The research is necessitated by the need to survey and asses the socio-economic impacts of weaving as well as documentation of some weaving techniques, materials and products before its total extinction. Objectives of the study include: survey and identify types of looms, materials, equipment, products, techniques and functions of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh as well as Ivav-tyo, cloth weaving system; asses and document the high level of socio-economic, historical and cultural impacts of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh as well as Ivav-tyo, weaving tradition; identify the constraints associated with cloth weaving in the study area; investigate on how Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, cloth weaving can be developed, improved, encouraged and promoted. Appropriate literature of empirical and conceptual nature were reviewed in line with the research topic and objectives. The descriptive survey method was adopted using the cross-sectional survey method; a population of 191, 935 (entire Ushongo population) was used while the 10% sample size of 99, respondents comprising 22 traditional weavers, 22 marketers and 55 consumers. Research instruments used were questionnaire, interview and observation. Descriptive statistical analysis was used for analyzing data. The findings of the study included: the production of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, fabrics had positively impacted on the socio-economic, historical and cultural life of the people. Thus majority of them use the fabrics as source of sustainable livelihood and income generation, cultural identity, dress accessories, celebration of achievement and enthronement; despite the shift from local materials for the production of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, woven fabrics to industrial materials, the textile industry among the Ushongo people had maintained its doggedness in preservation of the weaving equipment (vertical, horizontal loom and accessories). Major constraints associated with cloth weaving were identified among others as: lack or high cost of raw materials; lack of funding and knowledge to adopt new ideas and modern materials. It has been concluded that, as much as the production of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, fabrics had impacted quite positively on the socio-economic, historical and cultural wellbeing of Ushongo people, there are major constraints associated with cloth weaving in the area. If not checked, they are capable of strangulating the industry in totality. Recommendations for the study include among others: association of Ushongo traditional weavers should be formed and duly registered with corporate affairs commission. This will enable them to acquire credit and loan facilities from government, individuals or non-governmental organizations. The practitioners should also embrace the use of modern materials and decorated ideas for better growth, encouragement and promotion of the products.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title – – – – – – – – – – i
Declaration – – – – – – – – – ii
Certification – – – – – – – – – iii
Dedication – – – – – – – – – iv
Acknowledgements – – – – – – – – v
Abstract – – – – – – – – – vii
Table of Content – – – – – – – – viii
List of Figures – – – – – – – – xiii
List of Tables – – – – – – – – – xiv
List of Plates – – – – – – – – – xvi
Appendix – – – – – – – – – xvii
Abbreviation – – – – – – – – – xviii
Definition of Operational Terms – – – – – xix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study – – – – – – 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem – – – – – – 4
1.3 Aim – – – – – – – – – 4
1.4 Objectives of the Study – – – – – – 4
1.5 Research Questions – – – – – – – 5
1.6 Justification of the Study – – – – – – 5
1.7 Significance of the Study – – – – – – 6
1.8 Scope and Delimitation of the Study – – – – 7
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – 8
2.2 Concepts of Weaving – – – – – – – 8
2.2.1 Weaves – – – – – – – – 10
2.2.1.1 Plain Weave – – – – – – – – 10
2.2.1.2 Twill Weave – – – – – – – – 11
2.2.1.3 Satin Weave – – – – – – – – 12
2.2.2 Designs or Patterns – – – – – – – 13
2.2.3 Colours and Weave Effects – – – – – – 15
2.3 Historical Development of Cloth Weaving – – – – 17
2.3.1 The Prehistoric Origin of Weaving – – – – – 18
2.3.2 The Art of Weaving in Nigeria – – – – – 20
2.3.3 The Origins and Early textile (Weaving) Production among the Tiv 22
2.4 Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo Woven Fabrics – – 28
2.4.1 Anger Woven Cloth – – – – – – – 29
2.4.2 Agbende-a-Kurugh Woven Fabric – – – – – 30
2.4.3 Ivav-tyo Woven Cloth- – – – – – – 31
2.5 Types of Looms Used by Ushongo Hand Cloth Weavers – – 32
2.5.1 The Vertical Loom – – – – – – – 33
2.5.2 The Horizontal Loom – – – – – – 35
2.6 Weaving Centres in Nigeria – – – – – – 36
2.7 Functions of Hand Crafted Woven Fabrics – – – – 37
2.8 Socio-economic Impacts of Weaving – – – – 38
2.8.1 Industrial and Entrepreneurship Development – – – 39
2.8.2 Economic Diversification – – – – – – 39
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2.8.3 Commercial Network and Trade Relations – – – – 40
2.8.4 Opportunities for Sustainable Livelihood and Income Generation – 41
2.9 Historical Significance and Socio-Cultural Importance of Weaving
Tradition to the People in Ushongo Local Government Area – 41
2.9.1 Social Stratification – – – – – – – 42
2.9.2 Gender Differentiation – – – – – – 43
2.9.3 Commemoration – – – – – – – 44
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – 49
3.2 Design of the Study – – – – – – 49
3.3 Study Area – – – – – – – – 50
3.4 Population of the Study – – – – – – 52
3.4.1 Population Listing – – – – – – – 53
3.5 Sampling and Sampling Technique – – – – – 53
3.5.1 Sample – – – – – – – – 53
3.5.2 Sample Size – – – – – – – – 54
3.6 Pilot Study and Survey – – – – – – 55
3.6.1 Field Study – – – – – – – – 55
3.7 Instrument for Data Collection – – – – – 55
3.7.1 Validation of Research Instruments – – – – – 55
3.7.2 Administration of the Instruments – – – – – 56
3.8 Data Collection and Analysis – – – – – 56
3.8.1 Procedure for Analysing Data – – – – – 63
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – 64
4.2 Presentation of Analysis of Data on Traditional Weavers (TW) – 65
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4.2.1 Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, Production Processes – 68
4.2.2 Cotton Growing, Ginning and Spinning – – – – 69
4.2.3 Setting and Warping on the Broad (Horizontal Ground) Loom – 70
4.2.4 Setting the narrow Band (Two-Beamed) Loom – – – 70
4.2.5 Cloth Weaving – – – – – – – 71
4.2.6 Materials and Equipment – – – – – – 73
4.2.7 Production Techniques – – – – – – 74
4.2.7.1 Weaving on the horizontal loom – – – – – 74
4.2.7.2 Dyeing Technique – – – – – – – 77
4.2.7.3 Weaves – – – – – – – – 79
4.2.8 Weaving Centres Visited in Ushongo Local Government Area – 79
4.2.9 Weaving Existence and Practice (Areas visited) – – – 83
4.2.10 Constraints Associated with Cloth Weaving – – – 86
4.2.10.1 Lack of Knowledge to Adopt New Ideas Purpose Range
and Modern Materials – – – – – – 86
4.2.10.2 Lack of Electricity (Power) – – – – – – 87
4.2.10.3 Low Patronage and Growth Inhibition by an Unfavourable
Operating Environment – – – – – – 87
4.2.10.4 Lack or High Cost of Raw Materials and Loss of Originality – 88
4.2.10.5 Lack of Systematized Production – – – – – 89
4.3 Presentation and Analysis of Data on Marketers (MK) – – 90
4.3.1 Weaving Shops and Stands Visited in Ushongo Local Government
Area – – – – – – – – 97
4.4 Presentation and Analysis of Data on Consumers (CM) – – 100
4.5 Discussion – – – – – – – – 106
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – 110
5.2 Summary – – – – – – – – 110
5.2.1 Findings and Results of Study – – – – – 111
5.3 Conclusion – – – – – – – – 113
5.4 Recommendations – – – – – – – 114
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge – – – – – – 115
END NOTES – – – – – – – 116
REFERENCES – – – – – – – 118
APPENDIX I – – – – – – – 124
APPENDIX II – – – – – – 1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Weaving really portrays one of the nation’s rich cultural heritages which need to be preserved, improved and passed on to the younger generation. Picton (1988), defines weaving as, “a simple process of interlacing a set of yarn (warp and weft) at right angles to form a web or fabric. These two sets of thread, which are interlaced together on the loom, create a structure that holds the cloth together”. Weaving actually extends to cover mat, hat, bag and other raffia works. According to Hornby (2000), socio-economic is “the study of society connected with the trade, industry and development of wealth”. The study however, is on „An Examination of Cloth Weaving and its Socio-Economic Impacts in Ushongo Local Government Area of Benue State,‟ which has long history in Nigerian socio-cultural and economic importance. As pointed out by Ada and Nkom (2011) stated that,
an adequate development and improvement of weaving, leads to better growth in the socio-cultural and economic empowerment of many individuals and communities by ways of job creation, self-reliance and promotion of creativity in textile design, as well as a spring board for the growth of indigenous small scale modern textile industries in Nigeria.
So as in the case of Ushongo Local Government Area. On a similar note, these cultures include: the Tiv Anger cloth weaving, Aso-Oke weaving of the Yoruba, the Okene cloth of the Ebira and Akwete weaving of the Igbo. It is in this light that, the researcher delves into the cloth weaving in Ushongo Local Government Area.
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According to Igirgi (2007),
the tradition of indigenous „cloth making‟ is particularly strong in Ushongo Local Government Area of Benue State in Central Nigeria. The indigenous weaving apparatus such as looms, heddles, shuttles, weft sticks and related paraphernalia are as traditional as could have been from the earliest times. The main area of noticeable dilution of the tradition, is in the use of raw materials, especially the yarn, in which case modern factory spun threads have largely replaced locally spun cotton yarn.
Among the Mbayegh of Ushongo Local Government Area, knowledge of the indigenous weaving industry exists in almost every family, but actual practice of the trade is limited to families who have chosen it as an occupation. Among such families, weaving production assumes the place of specialized trade with well – defined production sites, systems and processes put in place to achieve the desired output levels. In fact, cloth weaving is one of the main economic activities in the area today. Although Ushongo people have certain practices and ways of life in ancient times which, tacitly imply the production and use of woven cloths by the people. Some examples of these practices and ways of life include consummation of marriages, commemoration of events and occasions of major significance and non-commercial character.
Igirgi (2007) states that, Cloth weaving industry in Ushongo Local Government Area, has invented a vast array of clothing items not just for covering the body, but also for suitability to particular times, events and occasions. For gender differentiation for example, Ivav-tyo, is used exclusively by women, while Tugudu and Godo are used mainly by men. However, Anger is used by both men and women. Cloths used by men have a relatively higher cultural and commercial value. It is also curious that, the designations of cloths for male and female use, have no practical bearing on the physical anatomical features of either sex as they are all plain, untailored cloths. The
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underlying reasons for such designation may therefore, be culturally abstract rather than practically functional. Apart from cloths which depict high social status such as Tugudu, Gbagir and Godo, there are those that reflect middle and low social statuses. The Anger (by far the most popular Tiv cloth) for example, is an average cloth for both men and women where status is being assessed on the basis of wealth. Cloth types for average status women are: Ivav-tyo, Agbende-a-Kurugh, Kwashi and so forth. In sum, it can be seen that, the Ushongo Local Government Area cloth weaving industry, invented various cloth types that have helped in the identification of social categories within the society. The correlation between clothing types and social status, has helped in no small way in determining and regulating social relations among members of the society over the years.
Although the weaving culture is at the stage of becoming extinct just as it is being experienced in most other ethnic and traditional hand crafted textiles in Nigeria, the failure to adopt new ideas and modern materials, made the socio-economic value of the weaving of Ushongo people to hit serious decline. Due to such decline, many authors such as; Akinwumi (1993) and Dzurgba (2012) have raised fears on the dwindling practice of the weaving craft in Nigeria which the Ushongo people are not an exception. They therefore, pointed out the need for documentation of these traditional weaving activities before the remaining information about them become extinct. It is in this light that, the researcher has carried out an examination of cloth weaving and its socio-economic impacts in Ushongo Local Government Area of Benue State.
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1.2 Statement of the Problem
As mentioned earlier on, there exists various cloth weaving cultures in Nigeria, from traditional time to date, which serve as schemes for vocational and self-reliance. These cultures include: Aso-oke weaving of the Yoruba, Okene cloth of the Ebira and Akwete weaving of Igbo. As pointed out by Igirgi (2007), “the tradition of indigenous cloth making is particularly strong in Ushongo Local Government Area of Benue State in central Nigeria. Despite the famous weaving culture of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, cloth, however little have been documented viz-a-viz the socio-economic impact of this great weaving culture”. The problem of the study therefore, is to document the socio-economic impacts of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, weaving in Ushongo Local Government Area of Benue State.
1.3 Aim
The aim of the study is to assess the existence and socio-economic impacts of weaving in Ushongo Local Government Area of Benue State.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are to:
i. survey and identify types of looms, materials, equipment, products, techniques and functions of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh as well as Ivav-tyo, cloth weaving system;
ii. assess and document the high level of socio-economic, historical and cultural impacts of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, weaving tradition;
iii. identify the constraints associated with cloth weaving in the study area, and
iv. investigate how Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, cloth weaving can be developed, improved, encouraged and promoted.
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1.5 Research Questions
The following research questions were drawn in order to guide this study:
i. What are the types of looms, materials, equipment, products, techniques and functions of cloth weaving system that have been identified in Ushongo Local Government Area?
ii. What are the high level of socio-economic, historical, and cultural impacts of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, weaving tradition ?
iii. What are the constraints associated with cloth weaving in the study area?
iv. How can Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, weaving be developed, improved, encouraged and promoted?
1.6 Justification of the Study
Inspiration for embarking on this study came from the need to survey and assesses the socio-economic impacts of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, weaving in Ushongo Local Government Area in order to assess their level of development. Another motivating factor, is the need for documentation of methods or techniques, production process, materials, equipment and products of Ushongo weaving tradition before its total extinction. Dutsenwai (2009), the traditional hand crafted textile industries should be properly assisted or developed through research on local materials, equipment and other dyeing tools, so as to change their status from traditional to a commercially based contemporary small-scale industry with modern machinery and change attitude to face new challenges of the market and the economy.
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1.7 Significance of the Study
The significance of this study covers many aspects including culture, education, economy and technology.
Culturally: The study contributes to the preservation of Nigerian cultural heritage by exposing and documenting the socio-economic, historical, cultural, unique methods and production processes of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, weaving, and their impacts as one of the surviving craft industries in Nigeria. It also serves as a medium of promoting interactive relationship and tourist attraction.
Educationally: It serves as an additional source of literature relating to the subject area of study, thereby improving the scanty literature on the socio-economic impacts of Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, weaving activities in Ushongo Local Government Area and Benue State at large. Furthermore, it serves as a reference purposes for further research on socio-economic impacts of cloth weaving especially that of Ushongo Local Government Area.
Economically: The economic significance of this study, shall be seen in the areas of commerce and revenue generation. If cloth weaving is developed, it will create job opportunities for many people in Ushongo Local Government Area. It will also generate more income to the economy of the area, and becomes a source of livelihood to many people.
Technologically: The study can be as one of the main goals of the industrial benefits for use in contemporary production. It focuses on the use of contemporary and traditional weaving techniques, equipment and materials of international standard. It also ensures greater and variety of new designs, materials, even fabrication of machines or looms, as well as other tools for the development of weaving in Nigeria and Ushongo Local Government Area in particular.
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1.8 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
The scope of this study was Ushongo Local Government Area of Benue State. Ushongo comprises of eleven districts: Ikov, Utange, Mbayegh, Mbagwaza, Mbagba, Atirkyese, Mbaagir, Mbakuha, Mbaivende, Mbaaka and Mbaawe with many weaving centres. It was delimited to Anger, Agbende-a-Kurugh and Ivav-tyo, weaving as well as the weavers, sellers, and buyers in the districts. The study identified, x-rayed and documented the materials, tools, ideas, techniques and functions of cloth weaving in Ushongo Local Government Area.
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